Postoperative trigeminal neuropathy outcomes following surgery for tumors involving the trigeminal nerve.

OBJECTIVE: To observe the evolution and outcomes of postoperative trigeminal neuropathy following surgery of tumor involving the trigeminal nerve. METHODS: A prospective observational study was conducted between October 2018 and February 2019 involving 25 patients with tumors confirmed to involve the trigeminal nerve during surgery by senior author. Pre- and postoperative trigeminal nerve function status and clinical data were recorded. RESULTS: This study included 18 cases of meningioma and seven of trigeminal schwannoma. Among the meningioma cases, 55.6% of the patients reported facial sensory dysfunction before surgery, 33.3% presented ocular discomfort, and 5.6% had masticatory muscle atrophy. Postoperatively, all patients experienced facial paresthesia, 94.4% complained of eye dryness, and one (5.56%) exhibited keratitis. Additionally, one patient (5.56%) showed new-onset masticatory weakness. During follow-up, 50.0% of patients reported improvement in facial paresthesia, and one (5.56%) experienced deterioration. Eye dryness resolved in 35.3% of patients, and keratitis remission was observed in one patient. However, one patient (5.56%) developed neurotrophic keratitis. Overall, 55.6% of patients displayed mild masticatory weakness without muscle atrophy. In the cases of schwannoma, 28.6% of patients had facial paresthesia before surgery, 42.9% showed ocular discomfort, and one (14.3%) complained of masticatory dysfunction. Postoperatively, 85.7% of patients reported facial paresthesia and eye dryness, with one patient (16.7%) experiencing keratitis. During follow-up, 66.7% of patients demonstrated improvement in facial paresthesia, 28.6% showed eye dryness remission, and one patient (16.7%) recovered from keratitis. However, one patient (16.7%) developed new-onset neurotrophic keratitis. One patient (16.7%) experienced relief of masticatory dysfunction, but 42.9% reported mild deterioration. Another patient (14.3%) had facial anesthesia that had not improved. CONCLUSION: Postoperative trigeminal neuropathy is a common complication with a high incidence rate and poor recovery outcomes after surgery for tumors involving the trigeminal nerve. When trigeminal nerve damage is unavoidable, it is essential to provide a multidisciplinary and careful follow-up, along with active management strategy, to mitigate the more severe effects of postoperative trigeminal neuropathy.

Trigeminal Neuropathy After Mandibular Fractures: Epidemiology and Neurophysiologic Diagnosis.

OBJECTIVES: To study the trigeminal nerve neuropathy prevalence after mandibular fractures and follow nerve recovery and to examine associations with clinical features. SUBJECTS: The files of 304 patients treated for 424 mandibular fractures in Hadassah Medical Center between 2001 and 2008 were analyzed. Twenty-five patients with paresthesia were examined by electro-diagnostic conduction test (quantitative sensory testing). RESULTS: The most common fracture sites were the symphysis (28.5%) and condyle (21.4%). A strong correlation between fracture severity and treatment modality was found. Nerve damage occurred in 13.4% of nondisplaced fractures and in 65.3% of >5 mm displaced fractures. Patients who were treated by open reduction internal fixation demonstrated the biggest difference in quantitative sensory testing values between the affected and nonaffected sides. C nerve fibers were the most damaged and least regenerated. There was correlation between damage perception and objective test results. CONCLUSIONS: There is a correlation between fracture type and displacement severity on neurologic deficit and prognosis. The objective neurosensory damage was manifested by higher nerve excitation threshold on the injured side. Patients should be informed on the prognosis of neurologic deficit according to fracture type.

Long-term follow-up results of stereotactic radiosurgery for vestibular schwannomas larger than 8 cc.

BACKGROUND: Accumulated stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) experience for large vestibular schwannomas (VSs) based on over 5 years of follow-up are as yet insufficient, and chronological volume changes have not been documented. METHOD: Among 402 patients treated between 1990 and 2015, tumor volumes exceeded 8 cc in 30 patients. We studied 19 patients with follow-up for more than 36 post-SRS months or until an event. Median tumor volume was 11.5 cc (range; 8.0 to 30.6). The target volume was basically covered with 12.0 Gy. RESULTS: The median magnetic resonance imaging and clinical follow-up periods were both 98 months (range 49 to 204). Tumor shrinkage was documented in 13 patients (72%), no change in 2 (11%), and growth in the other 3 (17%). Therefore, the crude growth control rate was 83%. All three patients with tumor enlargement needed salvage treatment. Thus, the crude clinical control rate was 84%. Actuarial further procedure-free rates were 91%, 83% and 76%, at the 60th, 120th, and 180th post-SRS month. Among six patients followed chronologically, transient tumor expansion was observed in three (43%) and two cystic VSs showed rapid tumor growth. Transient trigeminal neuropathy occurred in two patients (11%). No patients experienced facial nerve palsy. None of the six patients with useful hearing pre-SRS maintained serviceable hearing. Ventricular-peritoneal shunt placement was required in three patients. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term tumor control with SRS was moderately acceptable in large VSs. In terms of functional outcome, trigeminal neuropathies and facial palsies were rare. However, hearing preservation remains a challenge. In the long term, chronological tumor volumes were generally decreased after SRS. However, caution is required regarding rapid increases in tumor size, especially for cystic type VSs. Further studies are needed to optimize clinical positioning of SRS for large VSs.

Trigeminal Nerve Compression Without Trigeminal Neuralgia: Intraoperative vs Imaging Evidence.

BACKGROUND: While high-resolution imaging is increasingly used in guiding decisions about surgical interventions for the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia, direct assessment of the extent of vascular contact of the trigeminal nerve is still considered the gold standard for the determination of whether nerve decompression is warranted. OBJECTIVE: To compare intraoperative and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of the prevalence and severity of vascular compression of the trigeminal nerve in patients without classical trigeminal neuralgia. METHODS: We prospectively recruited 27 patients without facial pain who were undergoing microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm and had undergone high-resolution preoperative MRI. Neurovascular contact/compression (NVC/C) by artery or vein was assessed both intraoperatively and by MRI, and was stratified into 3 types: simple contact, compression (indentation of the surface of the nerve), and deformity (deviation or distortion of the nerve). RESULTS: Intraoperative evidence of NVC/C was detected in 23 patients. MRI evidence of NVC/C was detected in 18 patients, all of whom had intraoperative evidence of NVC/C. Thus, there were 5, or 28% more patients in whom NVC/C was detected intraoperatively than with MRI (Kappa = 0.52); contact was observed in 4 of these patients and compression in 1 patient. In patients where NVC/C was observed by both methods, there was agreement regarding the severity of contact/compression in 83% (15/18) of patients (Kappa = 0.47). No patients exhibited deformity of the nerve by imaging or intraoperatively. CONCLUSION: There was moderate agreement between imaging and operative findings with respect to both the presence and severity of NVC/C.

Ophthalmic Complications Following Acoustic Neuroma Resection.

BACKGROUND: Past studies have shown high rates of ocular complications with the need for ophthalmic surgery following acoustic neuroma resection (ANR). OBJECTIVE: To determine the rates of ophthalmic complications, referrals, and surgery following ANR, and the factors associated with poor outcomes. METHODS: A retrospective study of ophthalmic outcomes in patients who underwent ANR was conducted, following institutional review board approval. Surgical approach, tumor size, tumor characteristics, completeness of resection, postoperative House-Brackmann grades, ocular complications, referrals to ophthalmology, and ophthalmic treatments were recorded. RESULTS: Between 2007 and 2012, 174 patients underwent ANR. There were 3 surgical groups: retrosigmoid (n = 97), translabyrinthine (n = 59), and combined retrosigmoid and translabyrinthine (n = 18). Median tumor size was 2.2 cm. Postoperatively, 30% of patients had facial nerve dysfunction (House-Brackmann ≥3), which recovered to 19% by 1 mo and 8.6% by 1 yr following ANR. Fifty-six (32.9%) patients experienced ocular complications postoperatively, with lagophthalmos, dry eye, and blurry vision as the most common complications. Thirty-six (67.9%) of the patients who required ophthalmic treatment were managed nonsurgically, with just 13 (7.6%) patients requiring referral to an ophthalmologist. In total, only 9 (5.3%) patients received an ophthalmic procedure. Patients with tumors >2 cm, those undergoing combined retrosigmoid and translabyrinthine resection, and those with severe facial nerve dysfunction which did not improve in the first month following surgery were more likely to have poor ophthalmic outcomes. CONCLUSION: We present lower rates of ophthalmic complications following ANR than previously reported. Improved surgical technique, better postoperative eye care, and facial nerve monitoring most likely accounted for the improved ocular outcomes.

The Role of Electromyographic Blink Reflex in the Evaluation of Headache Incidence

Migraine and tension type headache are the most common disabling primary headache disorders. Epidemiological studies have documented their high prevalence and high socioeconomic and personal impacts. According to recent data, migraine ranks as the third most prevalent disorder and seventh-highest specific cause of disability worldwide. Tension-type headache has lifetime prevalence in the general population ranging between 30% and 78% in different studies. According to the International Classification of Headache Disorders, 3rd edition, there also are many other headaches but their incidence in general population is lower than the previously mentioned headaches. Trigeminal nerve and upper cervical segments (C1-C3) are included in pain control of the head region and often evaluated in headache studies in order to improve differential diagnosis and headache treatment. In our study, we evaluated the potential role of electromyographic (EMG) blink reflex in establishing diagnosis of headache and evaluation of trigeminal nerve dysfunction as the possible underlying pathomorphological headache mechanism. Our study included 60 patients with different types of primary headaches and 30 control subjects. Statistical analysis was performed by use of χ2-test and statistical significance was set at p<0.001. Study results showed that patients with trigeminal dysfunction in EMG blink reflex had a 5.6-fold higher risk of developing headache in comparison to subjects with normal EMG blink reflex finding.

Gamma Knife Radiosurgery as Primary Treatment for Large Vestibular Schwannomas: Clinical Results at Long-Term Follow-Up in a Series of 59 Patients.

BACKGROUND: Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) represents a well-accepted treatment for small-medium vestibular schwannomas (VS); however, its application in larger VS is still controversial. METHODS: Among the 523 patients treated at our institution for VS between 2001 and 2010, we included 59 patients with a VS larger than 25 mm, treated by GKRS as primary treatment, not affected by neurofibromatosis type 2, and with a clinical follow-up of at least 36 months. Five patients underwent ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement before radiosurgery. Clinical follow-up (mean, 79.4 months) was obtained in all patients. Patients' age ranged from 24 to 85 years (mean, 63.8 years). Mean tumor volume was 5.98 cm3 (maximum, 14.3 cm3) and median marginal dose was 13 Gy. A statistical analysis was performed to correlate clinical outcome with tumor radiologic features, dose-planning parameters, and patients' characteristics. RESULTS: Tumor control was achieved in 98.3% of cases. At last follow-up, 86.4% of VS showed volume reduction. Recorded complications were 3 cases (5.1%) of new permanent facial nerve deficit, 4 cases (6.8%) of new or worsened trigeminal impairment, and 10 new cases (18.5%) of hydrocephalus requiring ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Larger tumor size was significantly associated with a subsequent ventricular enlargement. Overall, functional hearing preservation rate was 31.3% (66.7% among patients with Gardner-Robertson I). CONCLUSIONS: Surgical resection remains the primary approach for large VS with symptomatic brainstem compression. GKRS can be considered a safe and effective option in particular in patients who are not good candidates for surgery.

Trigeminal Ganglion Stimulation.

Facial pain in the distribution of the trigeminal nerve, commonly identified as trigeminal neuralgia, should not be confused with trigeminal neuropathic pain. The latter is caused by an accidental and nonintentional nerve lesion. When the first-line pharmacological treatment fails to provide satisfactory pain relief, surgical treatment, such as microvascular decompression and neurodestructive interventions (radiofrequency or cryotherapy), is not indicated. The logical choice of technique becomes neuromodulation, but it may be challenging to perform in the facial area. Although the initial results of trigeminal ganglion stimulation were promising, they often were of short duration because of lead migration and inadequate stimulation coverage in the trigeminal nerve distribution. To ensure accurate placement and proper anchoring, a custom-made electrode was developed and produced, and its stereotactic implantation is guided by electromagnetic navigation. This technique has been used at our center for several years; the published results show at least 30% of pain relief in 75% of the patients and considerable reduction in medication use.

Trigeminal nerve deficit in large and compressive acoustic neuromas and its correlation with MRI findings.

OBJECTIVES: Evaluate the prevalence of preoperative trigeminal nerve deficit in large/compressive acoustic neuromas and try to find a correlation between pre/postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings and pre/postoperative trigeminal nerve deficit. STUDY DESIGN: Case series with chart review. SETTING: University medical center. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Retrospective study (1994-2009) including patients with stage 4 or 5 acoustic neuromas (Zini-Magnan classification). All patients underwent surgical resection. Pre- and postoperative trigeminal symptoms were sought. Imaging criteria were sought on pre- and 3-month postoperative MRI scans. Pearson χ(2) statistical test was used. RESULTS: Fifty-three patients (27 females, mean 51 years) were operated on. Preoperatively, 3 patients (5.7%) had trigeminal neuralgia, 1 (1.9%) trigeminal anesthesia, and 28 (52.8%) trigeminal hypoesthesia. Sixteen patients (30.2%) had no corneal reflex (ophthalmic branch); keratitis occurred in 1 patient (1.9%). Postoperatively, 2 patients (3.8%) had trigeminal neuralgia, 1 (1.9%) trigeminal anesthesia, and 24 (45.3%) trigeminal hypoesthesia. Twenty-six patients (49%) had no corneal reflex; keratitis occurred in 11 patients (20.7%). Preoperative trigeminal hypoesthesia was statistically correlated with impaction of the tumor on cerebellar peduncles on preoperative MRI. Postoperative trigeminal hypoesthesia was statistically correlated with nonvisibility of the trigeminal nerve on postoperative MRI. CONCLUSION: In large/compressive acoustic neuromas, trigeminal nerve deficit has to be sought to avoid corneal complications in particular. Trigeminal hypoesthesia occurs preoperatively in about half of the cases. It remains relatively stable after tumor removal, but there appears to be an increased rate of absent corneal reflex and keratitis postoperatively. We were able to correlate pre/postoperative trigeminal hypoesthesia with pre/postoperative MRI findings.

Chronic pain: lost inhibition?

Human brain imaging has revealed that acute pain results from activation of a network of brain regions, including the somatosensory, insular, prefrontal, and cingulate cortices. In contrast, many investigations report little or no alteration in brain activity associated with chronic pain, particularly neuropathic pain. It has been hypothesized that neuropathic pain results from misinterpretation of thalamocortical activity, and recent evidence has revealed altered thalamocortical rhythm in individuals with neuropathic pain. Indeed, it was suggested nearly four decades ago that neuropathic pain may be maintained by a discrete central generator, possibly within the thalamus. In this investigation, we used multiple brain imaging techniques to explore central changes in subjects with neuropathic pain of the trigeminal nerve resulting in most cases (20 of 23) from a surgical event. Individuals with chronic neuropathic pain displayed significant somatosensory thalamus volume loss (voxel-based morphometry) which was associated with decreased thalamic reticular nucleus and primary somatosensory cortex activity (quantitative arterial spin labeling). Furthermore, thalamic inhibitory neurotransmitter content was significantly reduced (magnetic resonance spectroscopy), which was significantly correlated to the degree of functional connectivity between the somatosensory thalamus and cortical regions including the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices, anterior insula, and cerebellar cortex. These data suggest that chronic neuropathic pain is associated with altered thalamic anatomy and activity, which may result in disturbed thalamocortical circuits. This disturbed thalamocortical activity may result in the constant perception of pain.

A comparison of benign and inflammatory manifestations of Tolosa-Hunt syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Tolosa-Hunt syndrome (THS) manifests as a benign or an inflammatory type disease. The nosography differences between these types remain to be elucidated. We aimed to analyze and compare the clinical presentations of benign and inflammatory THS. METHODS: The ward patients who presented with THS from January 1990 to May 2011 were retrospectively reviewed. THS was diagnosed according to the recommendations of the International Headache Society. RESULTS: Of the 53 THS cases (49 patients), 30 (56.6%) were classified as benign and 23 (43.4%) as inflammatory THS. There were strong similarities between the groups in terms of clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, responses to glucocorticoid treatment, and outcomes. However, patients with inflammatory THS tended to be younger (mean age, 43.4 years; P 0.05) and have optic nerve dysfunction (56.5%; P 0.05) and longer disease duration (2.3 ± 1.0 months; P 0.05) compared to those with benign THS (mean age, 56.4 years; mean disease duration, 1.6 ± 0.7 months). The patients with additional involvement of both the optic nerve and the second division of the trigeminal nerve experienced a longer disease duration ( P 0.05). Additionally, patients with orbital pseudotumors had diplopia that responded poorly to treatment with glucocorticoids ( P 0.05). High-dose (>0.5 mg/kg/day) and low-dose (≤0.5 mg/kg/day) prednisolone were equally effective in relieving symptoms in both groups ( P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Benign and inflammatory THS were highly similar in terms of nosography. The responses to glucocorticoid treatment were generally good except in patients with orbital pseudotumors.

Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors of the trigeminal nerve: a systematic review of 36 cases.

OBJECT: Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs) are a rare form of malignancy arising from the Schwann cells of peripheral nerves. MPNSTs of the trigeminal nerve are exceptionally rare, with only a handful of reports in the literature. These tumors are typically very aggressive, resulting in significant patient morbidity and a generally grim prognosis. Most current reports suggest that radical resection with radiation therapy offers the best benefit. In this study, the authors systematically reviewed the world English-language literature on MPNSTs of the trigeminal nerve to analyze the presentations, treatment options, and outcomes for patients with this disease. METHODS: A literature search for MPNSTs of the trigeminal nerve confined to nonanimal, English-language articles was conducted utilizing the PubMed database, with additional cases chosen from the references of selected articles. Only cases of confirmed MPNSTs of the trigeminal nerve or its peripheral branches, based upon surgical, pathological, or radiological analysis, were included. RESULTS: From the literature search, 29 articles discussing 35 cases of MPNSTs of the trigeminal nerve were chosen. With the addition of 1 case from their own institution, the authors analyzed 36 cases of trigeminal MPNSTs. The average age of onset was 44.6 years. These tumors were more commonly seen in male patients (77.1%). The gasserian ganglion was involved in 36.1% of the cases. Of the cases in which the nerve distribution was specified (n = 25), the mandibular branch was most commonly involved (72.0%), followed by the maxillary branch (60.0%) and the ophthalmic branch (32.0%), with 44.0% of patients exhibiting involvement of 2 or more branches. Altered facial sensation and facial pain were the 2 most commonly reported symptoms, found in 63.9% and 52.8% of patients, respectively. Mastication difficulty and diplopia were seen in 22.2% of patients, facial weakness was seen in 19.4%, and hearing loss was present in 16.7%. With regard to the primary treatment strategy, 80.6% underwent resection, 16.7% underwent radiation therapy, and 2.9% received chemotherapy alone. Patients treated with complete resection followed by postoperative radiation therapy had the most favorable outcomes, with no patients showing evidence of disease recurrence with a mean follow-up of 34.6 months. Patients treated with incomplete resection followed by postoperative radiation therapy had more favorable outcomes than patients treated with incomplete resection without radiation therapy or radiation therapy alone. CONCLUSIONS: Trigeminal MPNSTs most commonly present as altered facial sensation or facial pain, although they exhibit a number of other clinical manifestations, including the involvement of other cranial nerves. While a variety of treatment options exist, due to their highly infiltrative nature, aggressive resection followed by radiation therapy appears to offer the greatest chance of recurrence-free survival.

Trigeminal complications arising after surgery of cranial base meningiomas.

Chronic severe facial pain is a feared sequel of cranial base surgery. This study explores the symptomatology, incidence and impact on the individual of postoperative de novo trigeminal nerve affection as well as the recovery potential. Out of 231 patients operated for cranial base meningiomas at the Karolinska University Hospital during 7 years, 25 complained of de novo trigeminal symptoms at clinical follow-up 3 months after surgery. Six were later lost to follow-up leaving 19 participants in the study, which was conducted using a questionnaire and a structured telephone interview. All patients complained of facial numbness, affecting the V1 branch in 10/19 patients (53%), the V2 branch in 18/19 (95%) and the V3 branch in 9/19 (47%). Surprisingly, only three (16%) suffered from trigeminal pain, which could be adequately managed by pharmacotherapy. However, five patients (26%) demonstrated ocular dysaesthetic problems. Twelve (63%) described their handicap to be mild, while seven (37%) had daily or severe symptoms. Five patients (26%) reported no improvement over time, while nine (47%) showed improvement and four (21%) stated good recovery. Only one patient (5%) claimed complete symptom remission. In the present study, 11% of the patients presented with a de novo postoperative affection of the trigeminal nerve after removal of a cranial base meningioma; 37% of these reported daily/severe symptoms. Only 26% showed good recovery, observed in patients without tumour infiltration of the nerve or intraoperative nerve damage. In spite of frequent complaints of numbness, pain was uncommon (16%) and often manageable by pharmacotherapy, while ocular symptoms turned out to be more frequent and more disabling than expected.

Gamma knife surgery of vestibular schwannomas: volumetric dosimetry correlations to hearing loss suggest stria vascularis devascularization as the mechanism of early hearing loss.

OBJECTIVE: Determine which variables are correlated with early hearing changes after gamma knife surgery of vestibular schwannomas (VSs). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective clinical study of hearing outcomes, radiation dosimetry, conformity, and tumor size of all sporadic unilateral VS patients treated between June 2000 and July 2009. SETTING: Tertiary referral center. PATIENTS: : Fifty-nine VS patients with at least 6 months of follow-up data were studied. INTERVENTIONS: Audiometry and imaging were performed to determine auditory thresholds, speech discrimination, and tumor size. Radiation doses to 5 volumes were measured. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Pretreatment and posttreatment comparisons were performed with regard to change in tumor size; radiation dose to specific volumes including the internal auditory canal, cochlea, basal turn of the cochlea, and modiolus; and conformity of the treatment. RESULTS: The mean follow-up was 63.76 months (standard deviation, ±29.02 mo; range, 9-109 mo). The median follow-up was 65.5 months. A statistically significant association between maximum radiation dose to the cochlea volume and 3-frequency pure-tone average in patients starting with 50 dB or lesser PTA3 was demonstrated using linear regression analysis. CONCLUSION: Longitudinal changes in hearing occur over time, with the largest changes seen in the first 12 months after treatment. With our study outcomes as basis, limiting the dose of radiation to the cochlea to no more than 4 Gy would likely reduce vascular injury to the stria vascularis and improve hearing outcomes. Shielding the cochlea during the treatment planning process would be one mechanism to accomplish this goal.

The incidence of trigeminocardiac reflex in endovascular treatment of dural arteriovenous fistula with onyx.

This paper reports the incidence of tri-geminocardiac reflex (TCR) in endovascular treatment of dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs) with Onyx. The consecutive case histories of 45 patients with DAVFs, treated with Onyx transarterially and transvenously, from February 2005 to February 2008 at Beijing Tiantan Hospital, China, were retrospectively reviewed. The time period was limited as the anesthetic and intravascular procedure was performed under the same standardized anesthetic protocol and by the same team. The TCR rate was subsequently calculated. Of the 45 patients, five showed evidence of TCR during transarterial Onyx injection and transvenous DMSO injection. Their HR fell 50% during intravascular procedures compared with levels immediately before the stimulus. However, blood pressure values were stable in all cases. The TCR rate for all patients was 11.1% (95% CI, 4 to 24%), 7.7% (95% CI, 2 to 21%) in patients treated intraarterially and 33.3% (4 to 78%) in patients treated intravenously. Once HR has fallen, intravenous atropine is indicated to block the depressor response and prevention further TCR episodes. TCR may occur due to chemical stimulus of DMSO and Onyx cast formation under a standardized anesthetic protocol and should be blunted by atropine.

Non-audiofacial morbidity after Gamma Knife surgery for vestibular schwannoma.

OBJECT: While many studies have been published outlining morbidity following radiosurgical treatment of vestibular schwannomas, significant interpractitioner and institutional variability still exists. For this reason, the authors conducted a systematic review of the literature for non-audiofacial-related morbidity after the treatment of vestibular schwannoma with radiosurgery. METHODS: The authors performed a comprehensive search of the English-language literature to identify studies that published outcome data of patients undergoing radiosurgery treatment for vestibular schwannomas. In total, 254 articles were found that described more than 50,000 patients and were analyzed for satisfying the authors' inclusion criteria. Patients from these studies were then separated into 2 cohorts based on the marginal dose of radiation: < or = 13 Gy and > 13 Gy. All tumors included in this study were < 25 mm in their largest diameter. RESULTS: A total of 63 articles met the criteria of the established search protocol, which combined for a total of 5631 patients. Patients receiving > 13 Gy were significantly more likely to develop trigeminal nerve neuropathy than those receiving < 13 Gy (p < 0.001). While we found no relationship between radiation dose and the rate of developing hydrocephalus (0.6% for both cohorts), patients with hydrocephalus who received doses > 13 Gy appeared to have a higher rate of symptomatic hydrocephalus requiring shunt treatment (96% [> 13 Gy] vs 56% [< or = 13 Gy], p < 0.001). The rates of vertigo or balance disturbance (1.1% [> 13 Gy] vs 1.8% [< or = 13 Gy], p = 0.001) and tinnitus (0.1% [> 13 Gy] vs 0.7% [< or = 13 Gy], p = 0.001) were significantly higher in the lower dose cohort than those in the higher dose cohort. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our review of the literature provide a systematic summary of the published rates of nonaudiofacial morbidity following radiosurgery for vestibular schwannoma.

Herpes zoster with progression to acute varicella zoster virus-meningoencephalitis.

BACKGROUND: Acute meningoencephalitis (ME) from varicella zoster virus (VZV) reactivation is a rare and serious complication of herpes zoster (HZ). OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: As early diagnostic detection is mandatory to prevent long-term sequelae, any clinical indication is helpful to identify patients that are at higher risk of the development of VZV-ME. In order to find such risk factors, the clinical data of 38 patients consecutively hospitalized for the treatment of HZ over a 1-year period were analyzed. RESULTS: Four of the 38 patients with HZ developed ME. Of these, three had involvement of the trigeminal nerve branch, one including an ophthalmic affection, and one presented with disseminated HZ. All were women with an average age of 83.5 years, in comparison with patients with HZ but without ME who had an average age of 69.3 years and a female preponderance of 60%. The first clinical signs of ME were rapidly progressing somnolence and meningism. Patients with HZ-ME were treated with intravenous acyclovir, oral glucocorticosteroids, and antiseizure therapy, and recovered almost completely without major residual symptoms. CONCLUSION: Progression of HZ to ME seems to occur more often than normally believed. Female patients above 80 years of age with either ophthalmic involvement or disseminated HZ are at a potentially high risk of the development of ME. The general recommendation of starting oral glucocorticosteroids from day 1 of antiviral treatment in older patients must be questioned, as it may stimulate VZV replication and dissemination.

Gamma knife radiosurgery in younger patients with vestibular schwannomas.

OBJECTIVE: Management options for patients with vestibular schwannoma include observation, surgical resection, stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), and stereotactic radiation therapy. In younger patients, resection is often advocated because of concern regarding the long-term effects of radiation. We studied tumor response and clinical outcomes after SRS in such patients. METHODS: We reviewed long-term outcomes in 55 patients with vestibular schwannomas. Patients were 40 years of age or younger, underwent gamma knife (GK) SRS between 1987 and 2003, and were followed up for a minimum of 4 years. The median patient age was 35 years (range, 13-40 years). Forty-one patients had Gardner-Robertson class 1 to 4 hearing. Thirteen patients (24%) had undergone surgical removal. The median tumor volume was 1.7 mm. The median tumor margin dose was 13.0 Gy (range, 11-20 Gy). RESULTS: At a median of 5.3 years, (range, 4-20 years), 2 of 55 patients underwent GK SRS for a second time; 1 of these patients had had a recurrence after initial resection. The 5-year rate of freedom from additional management was 96%. Hearing preservation rates (i.e., remaining within the same Gardner-Robertson hearing class) were 93%, 87%, and 87% at 3, 5, and 10 years, respectively. In patients with serviceable hearing before SRS, it was maintained in 100%, 93%, and 93% of patients at 3, 5, and 10 years, respectively. Hearing preservation was related to a margin dose lower than 13 Gy (P = 0.017). At the last assessment, facial and trigeminal nerve function was preserved in 98.2% and 96.4% of patients, respectively; the only facial deficit (House-Brackmann grade III) occurred in a patient who received a tumor dose of 20 Gy early in our experience (1988). None of the patients treated with doses lower than 13 Gy experienced facial or trigeminal neuropathy. All patients continued their previous level of activity or employment after GK SRS. No patient developed a secondary radiation-related tumor. CONCLUSION: Our experience indicates that GK SRS is an effective management strategy for younger patients with vestibular schwannoma, most of whom have no additional cranial nerve dysfunction.

Dynamic mechanical (brush) allodynia in cluster headache: a prevalence study in a tertiary headache clinic.

Cutaneous allodynia (CA) has been described in migraine and has been related to treatment failure. There are little data about the incidence of CA in other primary headache syndromes such as cluster headache (CH). The objectives of this study are to evaluate the prevalence of dynamic mechanical (brush) allodynia (BA) in CH patients attending a tertiary headache clinic, and to assess its relation to disease characteristics. Adult patients with episodic or chronic CH were recruited. We obtained demographic data and data on disease characteristics through a structured questionnaire, and tested the patients for brush allodynia BA by applying a 4 x 4 gauze pad over the V1, C2/C3 and C8 skin areas bilaterally. The prevalence of allodynia in the entire study population and in the different sub-groups was calculated. We also examined the association between CA and demographic parameters, and its association with disease characteristics. Forty-one patients were recruited (22 men, 19 women; mean age 44.9 years). Twenty-two had chronic CH (CCH) and 19 had episodic CH (ECH). Mean disease duration was 14.1 years (12.3 the CCH group and 15.7 in the ECH group). Overall, 20 (49%) patients were allodynic. There was no statistically significant association between the presence of allodynia and age, gender, diagnosis (episodic vs. chronic CH), disease duration or disease severity. In conclusion, BA was common in this CH patient sample. The therapeutic implications of the presence of BA in CH need to be further studied.