Systematic review and meta-analysis on seroprevalence of leptospirosis in non-human primates worldwide.

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease whose transmission is linked to multiple factors involving the interface between animals, humans, and the environment. This disease is of great importance for public health, as it profoundly affects the health aspects of the population and animals. Considering the importance of non-human primates in this epidemiological chain, the objective of this research was to conduct a systematic literature review with meta-analysis, providing information on leptospirosis in non-human primates (NHPs) and an update on the infection situation in Brazil and other countries. Thus, a search was performed in five databases, initially finding 3332 studies, of which 32 met the eligibility criteria and were used for the systematic review. According to them, the most prevalent serogroup in non-human primates was Icterohaemorrhagiae, which is adapted to rodents as primary hosts. A wide distribution of the infection was found in the regions of both wild and captive animals. Through meta-analysis, the seroprevalence rate of leptospirosis in non-human primates was 27.21% (CI 17.97-38.95%). Cochran's Q test (p < 0.01) identified heterogeneity between studies, classified as high by the Higgins and Thompson test (I2 = 92.4%). Therefore, seroepidemiological and Leptospira isolation studies in non-human primates are important to investigate and monitor the suspected impact of these species as maintainers or transmitters of the pathogen to humans and other wild and domestic animals, in addition to demonstrating the need for standardization related to control and prevention measures.

Simian varicella virus infection and reactivation in rhesus macaques trigger cytokine and Aß40/42 alterations in serum and cerebrospinal fluid.

Simian varicella virus (SVV) produces peripheral inflammatory responses during varicella (primary infection) and zoster (reactivation) in rhesus macaques (RM). However, it is unclear if peripheral measures are accurate proxies for central nervous system (CNS) responses. Thus, we analyzed cytokine and Aß42/Aß40 changes in paired serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during the course of infection. During varicella and zoster, every RM had variable changes in serum and CSF cytokine and Aß42/Aß40 levels compared to pre-inoculation levels. Overall, peripheral infection appears to affect CNS cytokine and Aß42/Aß40 levels independent of serum responses, suggesting that peripheral disease may contribute to CNS disease.

Blood meal analysis of Anopheles vectors of simian malaria based on laboratory and field studies.

Blood feeding and host-seeking behaviors of a mosquito play an imperative role in determining its vectorial capacity in transmitting pathogens. Unfortunately, limited information is available regarding blood feeding behavior of Anopheles species in Malaysia. Collection of resting Anopheles mosquitoes for blood meal analysis poses a great challenge especially for forest dwelling mosquitoes. Therefore, a laboratory-based study was conducted to evaluate the potential use of mosquitoes caught using human landing catch (HLC) for blood meal analysis, and subsequently to document blood feeding behavior of local Anopheles mosquitoes in Peninsular Malaysia. The laboratory-based experiment from this study revealed that mosquitoes caught using HLC had the potential to be used for blood meal analysis. Besides HLC, mosquitoes were also collected using manual aspirator and Mosquito Magnet. Overall, 47.4% of 321 field-caught Anopheles mosquitoes belonging to six species were positive for vertebrate host DNA in their blood meal. The most frequent blood meal source was human (45.9%) followed by wild boar (27.4%), dog (15.3%) and monkey (7.5%). Interestingly, only Anopheles cracens and Anopheles introlatus (Leucosphyrus Group) fed on monkey. This study further confirmed that members of the Leucosphyrus Group are the predominant vectors for knowlesi malaria transmission in Peninsular Malaysia mainly due to their simio-anthropophagic feeding behavior.

A primary Chlamydia trachomatis genital infection of rhesus macaques identifies new immunodominant B-cell antigens.

To identify immunodominant antigens that elicit a humoral immune response following a primary and a secondary genital infection, rhesus monkeys were inoculated cervically with Chlamydia trachomatis serovar D. Serum samples were collected and probed with a protein microarray expressing 864/894 (96.4%) of the open reading frames of the C. trachomatis serovar D genome. The antibody response to the primary infection was analyzed in 72 serum samples from 12 inoculated monkeys. The following criteria were utilized to identify immunodominant antigens: proteins found to be recognized by at least 75% (9/12) of the infected monkeys with at least 15% elevations in signal intensity from week 0 to week 8 post infection. All infected monkeys developed Chlamydia specific serum antibodies. Eight proteins satisfied the selection criteria for immunodominant antigens: CT242 (OmpH-like protein), CT541 (mip), CT681 (ompA), CT381 (artJ), CT443 (omcB), CT119 (incA), CT486 (fliY), and CT110 (groEL). Of these, three antigens, CT119, CT486 and CT381, were not previously identified as immunodominant antigens using non-human primate sera. Following the secondary infection, the antibody responses to the eight immunodominant antigens were analyzed and found to be quite different in intensity and duration to the primary infection. In conclusion, these eight immunodominant antigens can now be tested for their ability to identify individuals with a primary C. trachomatis genital infection and to design vaccine strategies to protect against a primary infection with this pathogen.

West Nile Virus Seroprevalence in an Outdoor Nonhuman Primate Breeding Colony in South Florida.

West Nile virus (WNV) was first detected in Florida in July 2001, with 404 human cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as of February 2020. The subtropical climate of Florida is ideal for the mosquitoes that transmit WNV. We investigated the WNV seroprevalence in 3 NHP species housed outdoors at The Mannheimer Foundation in South Florida. From January to December 2016, 520 3 to 30 y old NHP were sampled at our 2 closed sites in Homestead and LaBelle: 200 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), 212 cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis), and 108 hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas hamadryas). The presence of WNV IgG antibodies in these animals was determined by serum neutralization assays, which found a total seroprevalence of 14%. Seroprevalence was significantly higher in the baboons (29%) than the rhesus (11%) and cynomolgus (9%) macaques. The probability of seropositivity significantly increased with age, but sex and site did not significantly affect seroprevalence. The frequency of WNV seropositivity detected in these outdoor-housed NHP suggests that screening for WNV and other vector-borne diseases may be necessary prior to experimental use, particularly for infectious disease studies in which viremia or viral antibodies could confound results, and especially for populations housed outdoors in warm, wet climates. As no seropositive subjects demonstrated clinical signs of WNV and WNV exposure did not appear to significantly impact colony health, routine testing is likely unnecessary for most NHP colonies. However, WNV infection should still be considered as a differential diagnosis for any NHP presenting with nonspecific neurologic signs. Mosquito abatement plans and vigilant sanitation practices to further decrease mosquito and avian interaction with research NHP should also be considered.

Genomic and transcriptomic evidence for descent from Plasmodium and loss of blood schizogony in Hepatocystis parasites from naturally infected red colobus monkeys.

Hepatocystis is a genus of single-celled parasites infecting, amongst other hosts, monkeys, bats and squirrels. Although thought to have descended from malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.), Hepatocystis spp. are thought not to undergo replication in the blood-the part of the Plasmodium life cycle which causes the symptoms of malaria. Furthermore, Hepatocystis is transmitted by biting midges, not mosquitoes. Comparative genomics of Hepatocystis and Plasmodium species therefore presents an opportunity to better understand some of the most important aspects of malaria parasite biology. We were able to generate a draft genome for Hepatocystis sp. using DNA sequencing reads from the blood of a naturally infected red colobus monkey. We provide robust phylogenetic support for Hepatocystis sp. as a sister group to Plasmodium parasites infecting rodents. We show transcriptomic support for a lack of replication in the blood and genomic support for a complete loss of a family of genes involved in red blood cell invasion. Our analyses highlight the rapid evolution of genes involved in parasite vector stages, revealing genes that may be critical for interactions between malaria parasites and mosquitoes.

Study of Kyasanur forest disease viremia, antibody kinetics, and virus infection in target organs of Macaca radiata.

The present manuscript deals with experimental infections of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) to study disease progression for better insights into the Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) pathogenesis and transmission. Experimentally, 10 monkeys were inoculated with KFD virus (KFDV) (high or low dose) and were regularly monitored and sampled for various body fluids and tissues at preset time points. We found that only 2 out of the 10 animals showed marked clinical signs becoming moribund, both in the low dose group, even though viremia, virus shedding in the secretions and excretions were evident in all inoculated monkeys. Anti-KFDV immunoglobulin (Ig)M antibody response was observed around a week after inoculation and anti-KFDV IgG antibody response after two weeks. Anaemia, leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, monocytosis, increase in average clotting time, and reduction in the serum protein levels were evident. The virus could be re-isolated from the skin during the viremic period. The persistence of viral RNA in the gastrointestinal tract and lymph nodes was seen up to 53 and 81 days respectively. Neuro-invasion was observed only in moribund macaques. Re-challenge with the virus after 21 days of initial inoculation in a monkey did not result in virus shedding or immune response boosting.

Innate and Adaptive Anti-SIV Responses in Macaque Semen: Implications for Infectivity and Risk of Transmission.

HIV-1 infection is transmitted primarily by sexual exposure, with semen being the principal contaminated fluid. However, HIV-specific immune response in semen has been understudied. We investigated specific parameters of the innate, cellular, and humoral immune response that may affect semen infectivity in macaques infected with SIVmac251. Serial semen levels of cytokines and chemokines, SIV-specific antibodies, neutralization, and FcγR-mediated functions and SIV-specific T-cell responses were assessed and compared to systemic responses across 53 cynomolgus macaques. SIV infection induced an overall inflammatory state in the semen. Several pro-inflammatory molecules correlated with SIV virus levels. Effector CD8+ T cells were expanded in semen upon infection. SIV-specific CD8+ T-cells that expressed multiple effector molecules (IFN-γ+MIP-1ß+TNF+/-) were induced in the semen of a subset of SIV-infected macaques, but this did not correlate with local viral control. SIV-specific IgG, commonly capable of engaging the FcγRIIIa receptor, was detected in most semen samples although this positively correlated with seminal viral load. Several inflammatory immune responses in semen develop in the context of higher levels of SIV seminal plasma viremia. These inflammatory immune responses could play a role in viral transmission and should be considered in the development of preventive and prophylactic vaccines.

Plasmodium infection and its association with biochemical and haematological parameters in free-living Alouatta guariba clamitans (Cabrera, 1940) (Primates: Atelidae) in Southern Brazil.

BACKGROUND: The influence of Plasmodium spp. infection in the health of Southern brown howler monkey, Alouatta guariba clamitans, the main reservoir of malaria in the Atlantic Forest, is still unknown. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the positivity rate of Plasmodium infection in free-living howler monkeys in an Atlantic Forest fragment in Joinville/SC and to associate the infection with clinical, morphometrical, haematological and biochemical alterations. METHODS: Molecular diagnosis of Plasmodium infection in the captured monkeys was performed by Nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (18S rRNA and coxI). Haematological and biochemical parameters were compared among infected and uninfected monkeys; clinical and morphometrical parameters were also compared. FINDINGS: The positivity rate of Plasmodium infection was 70% among forty captured animals, the highest reported for neotropical primates. None statistical differences were detected in the clinical parameters, and morphometric measures comparing infected and uninfected groups. The main significant alteration was the higher alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels in infected compared to uninfected monkeys. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, Plasmodium infection in howler monkeys may causes haematological/biochemical alterations which might suggest hepatic impairment. Moreover, infection must be monitored for the eco-epidemiological surveillance of malaria in the Atlantic Forest and during primate conservation program that involves the animal movement, such as translocations.

In vitro and In vivo Susceptibility of Baboons (Papio sp.) to Infection with and Apparent Antibody Reactivity to Simian Betaretrovirus (SRV).

Despite the lack of confirmed reports of an exogenous Simian betaretrovirus (SRV) isolated from baboons (Papio sp.), reports of simian endogenous gammaretrovirus (SERV) in baboons with complete genomes suggest that such viruses may be potentially infectious. In addition, serologic tests have repeatedly demonstrated antibody reactivity to SRV in baboons from multiple colonies. These findings complicate the management and use of such animals for research. To provide further insight into this situation, we performed in vitro and in vivo studies to determine if baboons are or can be infected with SRV. In our initial experiment, we were not able to isolate SRV from 6 seropositive or sero-indeterminate baboons by coculturing their peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) with macaque PBMC or permissive cell lines. In a subsequent experiment, we found that baboon PBMC infected in vitro with high dose SRV were permissive to virus replication. To test in vivo infectibil- ity, groups of naive baboons were infused intravenously with either (i) the same SRV tissue culture virus stocks used for the in vitro studies, (ii) SRV antibody positive and PCR positive macaque blood, (iii) SRV antibody positive or indeterminate, but PCR negative baboon blood, or (iv) SRV antibody and PCR negative baboon blood. Sustained SRV infection, as defined by reproducible PCR detection and/or antibody seroconversion, was confirmed in 2 of 3 baboons receiving tissue culture virus but not in any recipients of transfused blood from seropositive macaques or baboons. In conclusion, the data indicate that even though baboon cells can be infected experimentally with high doses of tissue culture grown SRV, baboons that are repeatedly SRV antibody positive and PCR negative are unlikely to be infected with exogenous SRV and thus are unlikely to transmit a virus that would threaten the SPF status of captive baboon colonies.

Early-Life Iron Deficiency and Its Natural Resolution Are Associated with Altered Serum Metabolomic Profiles in Infant Rhesus Monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Iron deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency in human infants aged 6 to 24 mo, and negatively affects many cellular metabolic processes, including energy production, electron transport, and oxidative degradation of toxins. There can be persistent influences on long-term metabolic health beyond its acute effects. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to determine how iron deficiency in infancy alters the serum metabolomic profile and to test whether these effects persist after the resolution of iron deficiency in a nonhuman primate model of spontaneous iron deficiency. METHODS: Blood was collected from naturally iron-sufficient (IS; n = 10) and iron-deficient (ID; n = 10) male and female infant rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) at 6 mo of age. Iron deficiency resolved without intervention upon feeding of solid foods, and iron status was re-evaluated at 12 mo of age from the IS and formerly ID monkeys using hematological and other indices; sera were metabolically profiled using HPLC/MS and GC/MS with isobaric standards for identification and quantification at both time points. RESULTS: A total of 413 metabolites were measured, with differences in 40 metabolites identified between IS and ID monkeys at 6 mo (P$\le $ 0.05). At 12 mo, iron-related hematological parameters had returned to normal, but the formerly ID infants remained metabolically distinct from the age-matched IS infants, with 48 metabolites differentially expressed between the groups. Metabolomic profiling indicated altered liver metabolites, differential fatty acid production, increased serum uridine release, and atypical bile acid production in the ID monkeys. CONCLUSIONS: Pathway analyses of serum metabolites provided evidence of a hypometabolic state, altered liver function, differential essential fatty acid production, irregular uracil metabolism, and atypical bile acid production in ID infants. Many metabolites remained altered after the resolution of ID, suggesting long-term effects on metabolic health.

Serological evidence and experimental infection of cynomolgus macaques with pteropine orthoreovirus reveal monkeys as potential hosts for transmission to humans.

Pteropine orthoreoviruses (PRV) are emerging bat-borne viruses with proven zoonotic transmission. We recently demonstrated human exposure to PRV in Singapore, which together with previous reports from Malaysia and Vietnam suggest that human infection of PRV may occur periodically in the region. This raises the question whether bats are the only sources of human infection. In this study, we screened 517 cynomolgus macaques caught in Singapore for evidence of exposure to PRV3M (also known as Melaka virus), which was first isolated from human patients in Melaka, Malaysia. We found that 67 serum samples were PRV3M positive by ELISA and 34 were also positive by virus neutralization assay. To investigate whether monkeys could act as hosts for PRV transmission, we experimentally infected cynomolgus macaques with PRV3M and housed these animals with uninfected monkeys. Although no clinical signs of infection were observed in infected animals, viral RNA was detected in nasal and rectal swabs and all infected macaques seroconverted. Additionally, one of the uninfected animals seroconverted, implying active shedding and transmission of PRV3M. We provide evidence that PRV exposure in the macaque population in Singapore occurs at a relatively high prevalence and this study suggests that cynomolgus macaques may be an intermediate or reservoir host for PRVs.

Relationships between Cytokine Levels and Disease Parameters during the Development of a Collagen-induced Arthritis Model in Cynomolgus Macaques (Macaca fascicularis).

In rheumatoid arthritis research, NHP models of collagen-induced arthritis are important because these species share many immunologic and pathologic features with humans. In addition, serum levels of various cytokines in patients with rheumatoid arthritis have been studied as immune markers for disease prediction, early diagnosis, and effective therapeutic management. The purpose of this study was to identify changes in cytokine levels that occur during the development of collagen-induced arthritis in female cynomolgus macaques (n = 8) and to assess the relationships between these changes and various disease parameters. Blood samples were collected weekly before (week 0) and after (weeks 1 through 7) immunization with type II collagen; clinicopathologic and cytokine data from those samples and other clinical parameters were used in correlation analysis. Serum levels of IFN γ, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), and IL6 showed significant changes after generation of collagen-induced arthritis. IFNγ levels showed a strong negative correlation with body weight (an indicator of general body condition), and CCL2 and IL6 showed moderate negative correlation with body weight. Serum IL6 levels showed moderate positive correlation with the soft tissue swelling score and strong positive correlation with serum C-reactive protein levels in our NHP model of collagen-induced arthritis. In addition, serum levels of matrix metalloproteinase 3 increased significantly after inoculation with type II collagen and showed a moderate positive correlation with serum levels of C-reactive protein, IL6, and IL15. These results suggest close correlations between various cytokines and disease parameters in NHP models of rheumatoid arthritis. These cytokines therefore potentially could be used as markers for monitoring the efficacy of novel treatments in NHP models of rheumatoid arthritis.

Serum Cobalamin and Folate Concentrations in Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with Chronic Lymphocytic Enteritis.

Serum cobalamin and folate concentrations can serve as surrogate markers of gastrointestinal disease in dogs and cats, where they can have diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic implications. Chronic disease of the gastrointestinal tract, particularly chronic lymphocytic enteritis (CLE), occurs frequently in captive common marmosets. The aims of this study were to validate a commercially available assay for measuring serum cobalamin and folate concentrations in common marmosets, to establish reference intervals for these analytes in healthy marmosets, and to measure serum concentrations in common marmosets with CLE. The commercial assay was linear, accurate, precise, and reproducible for the measurement of serum cobalamin and folate concentrations in common marmosets. In healthy marmosets, the serum cobalamin concentration ranged from 322 to 2642 pg/mL (n = 35) and serum folate concentration from 54.8 to 786.4 ng/mL (n = 37). Low serum folate concentrations were moderately sensitive (greater than 70%) for CLE, and low serum cobalamin concentrations were moderately (greater than 70%) specific for CLE. Both serum cobalamin and folate concentrations were relatively unchanged in marmosets during 120 to 220 d. Serum cobalamin and folate concentrations were stable for approximately 7 y when samples were stored at -80 °C. Additional studies are warranted to further study the clinical implications of low serum cobalamin and folate concentrations in common marmosets.

Characterization of Baboon Cytomegalovirus Infection in Healthy Adult Baboons (Papio anubis).

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common chronic herpesvirus found in humans and numerous other mammalian species. In people, chronic viruses like CMV can alter overall health and immunity and pose a serious risk for those with an inadequate immune system. In addition, CMV plays an important role in animal health, and could affect the health of vulnerable populations, like endangered species. Previous studies found a high rate of CMV seropositivity among adult baboons (Papio anubis), and results from our laboratory revealed that baboon CMV (BaCMV) seropositivity was correlated with altered immune cell populations. In the current study, we further characterized BaCMV infection in normal, adult baboons. Analysis of blood samples from baboons (age, 6 to 26 y) revealed a low overall prevalence of detectable of BaCMV DNA, with a higher detection rate in aged baboons (older than 15 y). Furthermore, data suggest that individual baboons maintain similar rates of recurrence and levels of BaCMV shedding in saliva over time. Finally, we evaluated multiple commercially available assays for antihuman CMV IgG and IgM for use with baboon sera. Results of this study will improve our understanding of BaCMV and may be directly relevant to other closely related species.

Outbreak of toxoplasmosis in four squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) in Japan.

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that causes fatal disease in New World monkeys. Several reports have described outbreaks of toxoplasmosis in squirrel monkeys. Here, we report the death of four squirrel monkeys in a captive colony from acute toxoplasmosis, one of which developed toxoplasmosis about 1 year after the initial outbreak. Serum anti-T. gondii antibody was detected by a latex agglutination test in the animals, and one presented seropositive before clinical signs were observed. Macroscopically, the lungs were severely affected and three animals showed pulmonary edema. Microscopically, interstitial pneumonia was observed in all animals. In the liver and heart, multifocal mononuclear cell infiltration with necrosis was detected. Parasite loading tended to be higher in the lungs, liver and heart than in the spleen, kidney and brain. The parasite was isolated from the brain of one animal and this isolate showed type II restriction patterns in the SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2 and PK1 genes of T. gondii and type I restriction patterns in the L358 and Apico genes by PCR-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism analysis. The clinical signs were reduced in mice infected with this isolate compared with those infected with reference type II strain PLK in a bioassay. To our knowledge, this is the first report of isolation of the parasite from squirrel monkeys in Japan and offers the opportunity for genomic and pathogenic analyses to aid our understanding of acute toxoplasmosis.

Antibodies and Molecular Detection of Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum in Samples of Free-Ranging Marmosets (Primates: Callitrichidae: Callithrix spp.) in an Area of Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis in Southeastern Brazil.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne parasitic protozoan infection that affects mammals and involves a complex epidemiology. Although dogs are considered the main reservoir in zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (VL), the possible presence of other mammalian species acting as reservoirs has been associated as a possible cause of lack of success in the control of human VL in many endemic areas. The knowledge about natural infections of some species is still scarce, such as nonhuman primates (NHP), especially from the genus Callithrix (marmosets). We investigated the infection by Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum, the agent of VL in the Americas, in 26 marmosets captured monthly, from April 2014 to March 2015, in an environmentally protected area (EPA) in Southeastern Brazil. The EPA has undergone significant environmental changes and has a transmission focus of canine VL since 2009. Serology was performed through the direct agglutination test, which detected low antibody titers in seven marmosets (7/26; 26.9%, 95% confidence interval 9.9-44.0), being five Callithrix penicillata (black-tufted-ear marmoset) and two Callithrix jacchus (white-tufted-ear marmoset). The presence of the DNA of Leishmania was investigated in blood and skin samples by PCR and genetic sequencing. This is the first report of the detection of L. (L.) infantum in the skin of a marmoset, which was verified in a sample from one C. penicillata. The results demonstrate the natural infection of marmosets by L. (L.) infantum and may suggest the participation of these animals as hosts in the parasite's transmission cycle in the EPA. However, more comprehensive studies are needed to elucidate their role on the VL epidemiology in this area and also in different endemic areas, especially because these NHP are increasingly in contact with humans and domestic animals, particularly due to environmental changes.

Plasmodium infection and its association with biochemical and haematological parameters in free-living Alouatta guariba clamitans (Cabrera, 1940) (Primates: Atelidae) in Southern Brazil

BACKGROUND The influence of Plasmodium spp. infection in the health of Southern brown howler monkey, Alouatta guariba clamitans, the main reservoir of malaria in the Atlantic Forest, is still unknown. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate the positivity rate of Plasmodium infection in free-living howler monkeys in an Atlantic Forest fragment in Joinville/SC and to associate the infection with clinical, morphometrical, haematological and biochemical alterations. METHODS Molecular diagnosis of Plasmodium infection in the captured monkeys was performed by Nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (18S rRNA and coxI). Haematological and biochemical parameters were compared among infected and uninfected monkeys; clinical and morphometrical parameters were also compared. FINDINGS The positivity rate of Plasmodium infection was 70% among forty captured animals, the highest reported for neotropical primates. None statistical differences were detected in the clinical parameters, and morphometric measures comparing infected and uninfected groups. The main significant alteration was the higher alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels in infected compared to uninfected monkeys. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Therefore, Plasmodium infection in howler monkeys may causes haematological/biochemical alterations which might suggest hepatic impairment. Moreover, infection must be monitored for the eco-epidemiological surveillance of malaria in the Atlantic Forest and during primate conservation program that involves the animal movement, such as translocations.

DNA Polymerase Sequences of New World Monkey Cytomegaloviruses: Another Molecular Marker with Which To Infer Platyrrhini Systematics.

Over the past few decades, a large number of studies have identified herpesvirus sequences from many mammalian species around the world. Among the different nonhuman primate species tested so far for cytomegaloviruses (CMVs), only a few were from the New World. Seeking to identify CMV homologues in New World monkeys (NWMs), we carried out molecular screening of 244 blood DNA samples from 20 NWM species from Central and South America. Our aim was to reach a better understanding of their evolutionary processes within the Platyrrhini parvorder. Using PCR amplification with degenerate consensus primers targeting highly conserved amino acid motifs encoded by the herpesvirus DNA polymerase gene, we characterized novel viral sequences from 12 species belonging to seven genera representative of the three NWM families. BLAST searches, pairwise nucleotide and amino acid sequence comparisons, and phylogenetic analyses confirmed that they all belonged to the Cytomegalovirus genus. Previously determined host taxa allowed us to demonstrate a good correlation between the distinct monophyletic clades of viruses and those of the infected primates at the genus level. In addition, the evolutionary branching points that separate NWM CMVs were congruent with the divergence dates of their hosts at the genus level. These results significantly expand our knowledge of the host range of this viral genus and strongly support the occurrence of cospeciation between these viruses and their hosts. In this respect, we propose that NWM CMV DNA polymerase gene sequences may serve as reliable molecular markers with which to infer Platyrrhini phylogenetics.IMPORTANCE Investigating evolutionary processes between viruses and nonhuman primates has led to the discovery of a large number of herpesviruses. No study published so far on primate cytomegaloviruses has extensively studied New World monkeys (NWMs) at the subspecies, species, genus, and family levels. The present study sought to identify cytomegalovirus homologues in NWMs and to decipher their evolutionary relationships. This led us to characterize novel viruses from 12 of the 20 primate species tested, which are representative of the three NWM families. The identification of distinct viruses in these primates not only significantly expands our knowledge of the host range of this viral genus but also sheds light on its evolutionary history. Phylogenetic analyses and molecular dating of the sequences obtained support a virus-host coevolution.

Occurrence of hemotropic mycoplasmas in non-human primates (Alouatta caraya, Sapajus nigritus and Callithrix jacchus) of southern Brazil.

Hemoplasmas, the erythrocyte-associated mycoplasmas, have been detected in several primates, causing mostly subclinical infection. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of hemoplasma infection in captive and free-ranging monkeys from southern Brazil, as well as factors and hematological abnormalities associated with infection. Blood samples from 40 non-human primates (NHP) were tested for hemoplasmas and coinfections. An overall of 10/40 (25.0%) NHP tested positive for hemoplasmas using PCR-based assays, including 9/14 (64.3%) black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) and 1/24 (4.2%) black-horned capuchin (Sapajus nigritus). Infection was not statistically associated with anemia, but wild-born monkeys and male black howler monkeys were more likely to be positive when compared with captive-born animals and female black howler monkeys, respectively. The sequences from the black howler monkey hemoplasma were similar (94% identity) to the squirrel monkey hemoplasma ("Candidatus Mycoplasma kahanei") and were phylogenetically located in a different cluster when compared to the human hemoplasma ("Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis").