Tropicalizing the Portable Radio: Electronics and the U.S. Military's Battle against Fungi in the Pacific War.

As the U.S. military became embroiled in "jungle warfare" across the Pacific during World War II, it was caught off guard by the rapid deterioration of materials and equipment in the tropics, where the air was hot, humid, and teeming with fungal spores. This article tells the story of how American scientists and engineers understood the "tropical deterioration" of portable radios and electronics and developed techniques to counteract it. Examining scientific efforts to prevent tropical decay reveals how exposure to tropical conditions during World War II shaped the development of portable electronics. Contributing to envirotech history and environmental media studies, this article uncovers the importance of climate proofing to the history of electronics miniaturization. Tropical deterioration, furthermore, provides a technology-focused lens for enriching our historical understanding of the tropics as an environmental imaginary.

Recent advances in implantable sensors and electronics using printable materials for advanced healthcare.

This review article focuses on the recent printing technological progress in healthcare, underscoring the significant potential of implantable devices across diverse applications. Printing technologies have widespread use in developing health monitoring devices, diagnostic systems, and surgical devices. Recent years have witnessed remarkable progress in fabricating low-profile implantable devices, driven by advancements in printing technologies and nanomaterials. The importance of implantable biosensors and bioelectronics is highlighted, specifically exploring printing tools using bio-printable inks for practical applications, including a detailed examination of fabrication processes and essential parameters. This review also justifies the need for mechanical and electrical compatibility between bioelectronics and biological tissues. In addition to technological aspects, this article delves into the importance of appropriate packaging methods to enhance implantable devices' performance, compatibility, and longevity, which are made possible by integrating cutting-edge printing technology. Collectively, we aim to shed light on the holistic landscape of implantable biosensors and bioelectronics, showcasing their evolving role in advancing healthcare through innovative printing technologies.

Development of novel low-cost readout electronics for large field-of-view gamma camera detectors.

PURPOSE: Large scintillation crystals-based gamma cameras play a crucial role in nuclear medicine imaging. In this study, a large field-of-view (FOV) gamma detector consisting of 48 square PMTs developed using a new readout electronics, reducing 48 (6 × 8) analog signals to 14 (6 + 8) analog sums of each row and column, with reduced complexity and cost while preserving image quality. METHODS: All 14 analog signals were converted to digital signals using AD9257 high-speed analog to digital (ADC) converters driven by the SPARTAN-6 family of field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA) in order to calculate the signal integrals. The positioning algorithm was based on the digital correlated signal enhancement (CSE) algorithm implemented in the acquisition software. The performance characteristics of the developed gamma camera were measured using the NEMA NU 1-2018 standards. RESULTS: The measured energy resolution of the developed detector was 8.7 % at 140 keV, with an intrinsic spatial resolution of 3.9 mm. The uniformity was within 0.6 %, while the linearity was within 0.1 %. CONCLUSION: The performance evaluation demonstrated that the developed detector has suitable specifications for high-end nuclear medicine imaging.

Multi-project wafers for flexible thin-film electronics by independent foundries.

Flexible and large-area electronics rely on thin-film transistors (TFTs) to make displays1-3, large-area image sensors4-6, microprocessors7-11, wearable healthcare patches12-15, digital microfluidics16,17 and more. Although silicon-based complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) chips are manufactured using several dies on a single wafer and the multi-project wafer concept enables the aggregation of various CMOS chip designs within the same die, TFT fabrication is currently lacking a fully verified, universal design approach. This increases the cost and complexity of manufacturing TFT-based flexible electronics, slowing down their integration into more mature applications and limiting the design complexity achievable by foundries. Here we show a stable and high-yield TFT platform for the fabless manufacturing of two mainstream TFT technologies, wafer-based amorphous indium-gallium-zinc oxide and panel-based low-temperature polycrystalline silicon, two key TFT technologies applicable to flexible substrates. We have designed the iconic 6502 microprocessor in both technologies as a use case to demonstrate and expand the multi-project wafer approach. Enabling the foundry model for TFTs, as an analogy of silicon CMOS technologies, can accelerate the growth and development of applications and technologies based on these devices.

Design and fabrication of wearable electronic textiles using twisted fiber-based threads.

Mono-dimensional fiber-based electronics can effectively address the growing demand for improved wearable electronic devices because of their exceptional flexibility and stretchability. For practical applications, functional fiber electronic devices need to be integrated into more powerful and versatile systems to execute complex tasks that cannot be completed by single-fiber devices. Existing techniques, such as printing and sintering, reduce the flexibility and cause low connection strength of fiber-based electronic devices because of the high curvature of the fiber. Here, we outline a twisting fabrication process for fiber electrodes, which can be woven into functional threads and integrated within textiles. The design of the twisted thread structure for fiber devices ensures stable interfacing and good flexibility, while the textile structure features easily accessible, interlaced points for efficient circuit connections. Electronic textiles can be customized to act as displays, health monitors and power sources. We detail three main fabrication sections, including the fabrication of the fiber electrodes, their twisting into electronic threads and their assembly into functional textile-based devices. The procedures require ~10 d and are easily reproducible by researchers with expertise in fabricating energy and electronic devices.

Water-responsive supercontractile polymer films for bioelectronic interfaces.

Connecting different electronic devices is usually straightforward because they have paired, standardized interfaces, in which the shapes and sizes match each other perfectly. Tissue-electronics interfaces, however, cannot be standardized, because tissues are soft1-3 and have arbitrary shapes and sizes4-6. Shape-adaptive wrapping and covering around irregularly sized and shaped objects have been achieved using heat-shrink films because they can contract largely and rapidly when heated7. However, these materials are unsuitable for biological applications because they are usually much harder than tissues and contract at temperatures higher than 90 °C (refs. 8,9). Therefore, it is challenging to prepare stimuli-responsive films with large and rapid contractions for which the stimuli and mechanical properties are compatible with vulnerable tissues and electronic integration processes. Here, inspired by spider silk10-12, we designed water-responsive supercontractile polymer films composed of poly(ethylene oxide) and poly(ethylene glycol)-α-cyclodextrin inclusion complex, which are initially dry, flexible and stable under ambient conditions, contract by more than 50% of their original length within seconds (about 30% per second) after wetting and become soft (about 100 kPa) and stretchable (around 600%) hydrogel thin films thereafter. This supercontraction is attributed to the aligned microporous hierarchical structures of the films, which also facilitate electronic integration. We used this film to fabricate shape-adaptive electrode arrays that simplify the implantation procedure through supercontraction and conformally wrap around nerves, muscles and hearts of different sizes when wetted for in vivo nerve stimulation and electrophysiological signal recording. This study demonstrates that this water-responsive material can play an important part in shaping the next-generation tissue-electronics interfaces as well as broadening the biomedical application of shape-adaptive materials.

Memristor-based spiking neural network with online reinforcement learning.

Neural networks implemented in memristor-based hardware can provide fast and efficient in-memory computation, but traditional learning methods such as error back-propagation are hardly feasible in it. Spiking neural networks (SNNs) are highly promising in this regard, as their weights can be changed locally in a self-organized manner without the demand for high-precision changes calculated with the use of information almost from the entire network. This problem is rather relevant for solving control tasks with neural-network reinforcement learning methods, as those are highly sensitive to any source of stochasticity in a model initialization, training, or decision-making procedure. This paper presents an online reinforcement learning algorithm in which the change of connection weights is carried out after processing each environment state during interaction-with-environment data generation. Another novel feature of the algorithm is that it is applied to SNNs with memristor-based STDP-like learning rules. The plasticity functions are obtained from real memristors based on poly-p-xylylene and CoFeB-LiNbO3 nanocomposite, which were experimentally assembled and analyzed. The SNN is comprised of leaky integrate-and-fire neurons. Environmental states are encoded by the timings of input spikes, and the control action is decoded by the first spike. The proposed learning algorithm solves the Cart-Pole benchmark task successfully. This result could be the first step towards implementing a real-time agent learning procedure in a continuous-time environment that can be run on neuromorphic systems with memristive synapses.

High conductivity Sepia melanin ink films for environmentally benign printed electronics.

Melanins (from the Greek µÎ­λας, mélas, black) are bio-pigments ubiquitous in flora and fauna. Eumelanin is an insoluble brown-black type of melanin, found in vertebrates and invertebrates alike, among which Sepia (cuttlefish) is noteworthy. Sepia melanin is a type of bio-sourced eumelanin that can readily be extracted from the ink sac of cuttlefish. Eumelanin features broadband optical absorption, metal-binding affinity and antioxidative and radical-scavenging properties. It is a prototype of benign material for sustainable organic electronics technologies. Here, we report on an electronic conductivity as high as 10-3 S cm-1 in flexographically printed Sepia melanin films; such values for the conductivity are typical for well-established high-performance organic electronic polymers but quite uncommon for bio-sourced organic materials. Our studies show the potential of bio-sourced materials for emerging electronic technologies with low human- and eco-toxicity.

Sampling electronic structure quadratic unconstrained binary optimization problems (QUBOs) with Ocean and Mukai solvers.

The most advanced D-Wave Advantage quantum annealer has 5000+ qubits, however, every qubit is connected to a small number of neighbors. As such, implementation of a fully-connected graph results in an order of magnitude reduction in qubit count. To compensate for the reduced number of qubits, one has to rely on special heuristic software such as qbsolv, the purpose of which is to decompose a large quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO) problem into smaller pieces that fit onto a quantum annealer. In this work, we compare the performance of the open-source qbsolv which is a part of the D-Wave Ocean tools and a new Mukai QUBO solver from Quantum Computing Inc. (QCI). The comparison is done for solving the electronic structure problem and is implemented in a classical mode (Tabu search techniques). The Quantum Annealer Eigensolver is used to map the electronic structure eigenvalue-eigenvector equation to a QUBO problem, solvable on a D-Wave annealer. We find that the Mukai QUBO solver outperforms the Ocean qbsolv with one to two orders of magnitude more accurate energies for all calculations done in the present work, both the ground and excited state calculations. This work stimulates the further development of software to assist in the utilization of modern quantum annealers.

FMI-based co-simulation method and test verification for tractor power-shift transmission.

The tractor power-shift transmission (PST) research and development is a design process that incorporates many disciplines such as mechanical, control, and electronics. Modeling and simulation are typically dependent on various commercial tools for each discipline, making simulation, integration, and verification of system-level models problematic. Aiming at this, we propose a PST multi-domain co-simulation method based on the functional mock-up interface (FMI) standard, analyze the FMI-based simulation mechanism and the PST simulation system logical structure, and established the PST mechanical system model, control system model, tractor engine model, and tractor dynamic model. Based on FMI, these models are integrated into a PST co-simulation model. The starting speed, final drive half shaft speed and torque were simulated and tested. Among them, the simulation and the test starting time are 2.7s and 2.8s respectively, and the two speed curves are consistent; the simulation and the test final drive half shaft torque are approximately equal with a value of 1.5kN·m; the average Theil's inequality coefficients (TIC) value of the simulation and the test final drive half shaft speed is 0.1375, which is less than 0.25. The results show that the simulation and the test results are consistent, the PST co-simulation model is accurate, and the co-simulation method is feasible, which can improve the efficiency of tractor PST system development.

Direct Wiring of Liquid Metal on an Ultrasoft Substrate Using a Polyvinyl Alcohol Lift-off Method.

In recent years, wiring and system construction on ultrasoft materials such as biological tissues and hydrogels have been proposed for advanced wearable devices, implantable devices, and soft robotics. Among the soft conductive materials, Ga-based liquid metals (LMs) are both biocompatible and ultrasoft, making them a good match for electrodes on the ultrasoft substrates. However, gels and tissues are softer and less wettable to the LMs than conventional soft substrates such as Ecoflex and polydimethylsiloxane. In this study, we demonstrated the transfer of LM paste composed of Ga-based LM and Ni nanoparticles onto ultrasoft substrates such as biological tissue and gels using sacrificial polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films. The LM paste pattern fabricated on the PVA film adhered to the ultrasoft substrate along surface irregularities and was transferred without being destroyed by the PVA film before the PVA's dissolution in water. The minimum line width that could be wired was approximately 165 µm. Three-dimensional wiring, such as the helical structure on the gel fiber surface, is also possible. Application of this transfer method to tissues using LM paste wiring allowed the successful stimulation of the vagus nerve in rats. In addition, we succeeded in transferring a temperature measurement system fabricated on a PVA film onto the gel. The connection between the solid-state electrical element and the LM paste was stable and maintained the functionality of the temperature-sensing system. This fundamental study of wiring fabrication and system integration can contribute to the development of advanced electric devices based on ultrasoft substrates.

Molecular electronics sensors on a scalable semiconductor chip: A platform for single-molecule measurement of binding kinetics and enzyme activity.

For nearly 50 years, the vision of using single molecules in circuits has been seen as providing the ultimate miniaturization of electronic chips. An advanced example of such a molecular electronics chip is presented here, with the important distinction that the molecular circuit elements play the role of general-purpose single-molecule sensors. The device consists of a semiconductor chip with a scalable array architecture. Each array element contains a synthetic molecular wire assembled to span nanoelectrodes in a current monitoring circuit. A central conjugation site is used to attach a single probe molecule that defines the target of the sensor. The chip digitizes the resulting picoamp-scale current-versus-time readout from each sensor element of the array at a rate of 1,000 frames per second. This provides detailed electrical signatures of the single-molecule interactions between the probe and targets present in a solution-phase test sample. This platform is used to measure the interaction kinetics of single molecules, without the use of labels, in a massively parallel fashion. To demonstrate broad applicability, examples are shown for probe molecule binding, including DNA oligos, aptamers, antibodies, and antigens, and the activity of enzymes relevant to diagnostics and sequencing, including a CRISPR/Cas enzyme binding a target DNA, and a DNA polymerase enzyme incorporating nucleotides as it copies a DNA template. All of these applications are accomplished with high sensitivity and resolution, on a manufacturable, scalable, all-electronic semiconductor chip device, thereby bringing the power of modern chips to these diverse areas of biosensing.

Stretchable Supercapacitors: From Materials and Structures to Devices.

Stretchable supercapacitors have received widespread attention due to their potential applications in wearable electronics and health monitoring. Stretchable supercapacitors not only possess advantages such as high power density, long cycle life, safety, and low cost of conventional supercapacitors but also have excellent flexibility and stretchability, which make them well integrated with other wearable systems. In this review, various strategies to fabricate stretchable supercapacitors are focused. The preparation methods for stretchable electrodes/devices in the literature are carefully classified and analyzed. Three strategies for preparing stretchable electrodes/devices are summarized in detail-the design of elastic polymer substrates, stretchable electrode structures, and composite electrodes combined with elastic polymers and stretchable structures. Meanwhile, the interface problem of electrodes/devices in the stretching process is studied in depth. The research progress of multifunctional stretchable supercapacitors is also introduced. Finally, challenges and possible solutions that still need to be addressed in the future development of stretchable supercapacitors are highlighted and prospected. This review comprehensively discusses the latest research progress in the field of stretchable supercapacitors and systematically elucidates the electrochemical and mechanical properties of these devices, hoping to improve the roadmap for scientists and engineers to develop supercapacitors with high electrochemical performance and good stretchability.

High-frequency and intrinsically stretchable polymer diodes.

Skin-like intrinsically stretchable soft electronic devices are essential to realize next-generation remote and preventative medicine for advanced personal healthcare1-4. The recent development of intrinsically stretchable conductors and semiconductors has enabled highly mechanically robust and skin-conformable electronic circuits or optoelectronic devices2,5-10. However, their operating frequencies have been limited to less than 100 hertz, which is much lower than that required for many applications. Here we report intrinsically stretchable diodes-based on stretchable organic and nanomaterials-capable of operating at a frequency as high as 13.56 megahertz. This operating frequency is high enough for the wireless operation of soft sensors and electrochromic display pixels using radiofrequency identification in which the base-carrier frequency is 6.78 megahertz or 13.56 megahertz. This was achieved through a combination of rational material design and device engineering. Specifically, we developed a stretchable anode, cathode, semiconductor and current collector that can satisfy the strict requirements for high-frequency operation. Finally, we show the operational feasibility of our diode by integrating it with a stretchable sensor, electrochromic display pixel and antenna to realize a stretchable wireless tag. This work is an important step towards enabling enhanced functionalities and capabilities for skin-like wearable electronics.

Osseosurface electronics-thin, wireless, battery-free and multimodal musculoskeletal biointerfaces.

Bioelectronic interfaces have been extensively investigated in recent years and advances in technology derived from these tools, such as soft and ultrathin sensors, now offer the opportunity to interface with parts of the body that were largely unexplored due to the lack of suitable tools. The musculoskeletal system is an understudied area where these new technologies can result in advanced capabilities. Bones as a sensor and stimulation location offer tremendous advantages for chronic biointerfaces because devices can be permanently bonded and provide stable optical, electromagnetic, and mechanical impedance over the course of years. Here we introduce a new class of wireless battery-free devices, named osseosurface electronics, which feature soft mechanics, ultra-thin form factor and miniaturized multimodal biointerfaces comprised of sensors and optoelectronics directly adhered to the surface of the bone. Potential of this fully implanted device class is demonstrated via real-time recording of bone strain, millikelvin resolution thermography and delivery of optical stimulation in freely-moving small animal models. Battery-free device architecture, direct growth to the bone via surface engineered calcium phosphate ceramic particles, demonstration of operation in deep tissue in large animal models and readout with a smartphone highlight suitable characteristics for exploratory research and utility as a diagnostic and therapeutic platform.

Bioinspired Multifunctional Photonic-Electronic Smart Skin for Ultrasensitive Health Monitoring, for Visual and Self-Powered Sensing.

Smart skin is highly desired to be ultrasensitive and self-powered as the medium of artificial intelligence. Here, an ultrasensitive self-powered mechanoluminescence smart skin (SPMSS) inspired by the luminescence mechanism of cephalopod skin and the ultrasensitive response of spider-slit-organ is developed. Benefitting from the unique strain-dependent microcrack structure design based on Ti3 C2 Tx (MXene)/carbon nanotube synergistic interaction, SPMSS possesses excellent strain sensing performances including ultralow detection limit (0.001% strain), ultrahigh sensitivity (gauge factor, GF = 3.92 × 107 ), ultrafast response time (5 ms), and superior durability and stability (>45 000 cycles). Synchronously, SPMSS exhibits tunable and highly sensitive mechanoluminescence (ML) features under stretching. A relationship between ML features, strain sensing performances, and the deformation has been established successfully. Importantly, the SPMSS demonstrates excellent properties as triboelectric nanogenerator (4 × 4 cm2 ), including ultrahigh triboelectric output (open-circuit voltage VOC  = 540 V, short-circuit current ISC  = 42 µA, short-circuit charge QSC  = 317 nC) and power density (7.42 W m-2 ), endowing the smart skin with reliable power source supply and self-powered sensing ability. This bioinspired smart skin exhibits multifunctional applications in health monitoring, visual sensing, and self-powered sensing, showing great potential in artificial intelligence.

Super Tough and Spontaneous Water-Assisted Autonomous Self-Healing Elastomer for Underwater Wearable Electronics.

Self-healing soft electronic material composition is crucial to sustain the device long-term durability. The fabrication of self-healing soft electronics exposed to high moisture environment is a significant challenge that has yet to be fully achieved. This paper presents the novel concept of a water-assisted room-temperature autonomous self-healing mechanism based on synergistically dynamic covalent Schiff-based imine bonds with hydrogen bonds. The supramolecular water-assisted self-healing polymer (WASHP) films possess rapid self-healing kinetic behavior and high stretchability due to a reversible dissociation-association process. In comparison with the pristine room-temperature self-healing polymer, the WASHP demonstrates favorable mechanical performance at room temperature and a short self-healing time of 1 h; furthermore, it achieves a tensile strain of 9050%, self-healing efficiency of 95%, and toughness of 144.2 MJ m-3 . As a proof of concept, a versatile WASHP-based light-emitting touch-responsive device (WASHP-LETD) and perovskite quantum dot (PeQD)-based white LED backlight are designed. The WASHP-LETD has favorable mechanical deformation performance under pressure, bending, and strain, whereas the WASHP-PeQDs exhibit outstanding long-term stability even over a period exceeding one year in a boiling water environment. This paper provides a mechanically robust approach for producing eco-friendly, economical, and waterproof e-skin device components.

Self-Powered Interactive Fiber Electronics with Visual-Digital Synergies.

Fiber electronics with mechanosensory functionality are highly desirable in healthcare, human-machine interfaces, and robotics. Most efforts are committed to optimize the electronically readable interface of fiber mechanoreceptor, while the user interface based on naked-eye readable output is rarely explored. Here, a scalable fiber electronics that can simultaneously visualize and digitize the mechanical stimulus without external power supply, named self-powered optoelectronic synergistic fiber sensors (SOEFSs), are reported. By coupling of space and surface charge polarization, a new mechanoluminescent (ML)-triboelectric synergistic effect is realized. It contributes to remarkable enhancement of both electrical (by 100%) and optical output (by 30%), as well as novel temporal-spatial resolution mode for motion capturing. Based on entirely new thermoplastic ML material system and spinning process, industrial-level continuously manufacture and recycling processes of SOEFS are realized. Furthermore, SOEFSs' application in human-machine interface, virtual reality, and underwater sensing, rescue, and information interaction is demonstrated.

Self-sustained green neuromorphic interfaces.

Incorporating neuromorphic electronics in bioelectronic interfaces can provide intelligent responsiveness to environments. However, the signal mismatch between the environmental stimuli and driving amplitude in neuromorphic devices has limited the functional versatility and energy sustainability. Here we demonstrate multifunctional, self-sustained neuromorphic interfaces by achieving signal matching at the biological level. The advances rely on the unique properties of microbially produced protein nanowires, which enable both bio-amplitude (e.g., <100 mV) signal processing and energy harvesting from ambient humidity. Integrating protein nanowire-based sensors, energy devices and memristors of bio-amplitude functions yields flexible, self-powered neuromorphic interfaces that can intelligently interpret biologically relevant stimuli for smart responses. These features, coupled with the fact that protein nanowires are a green biomaterial of potential diverse functionalities, take the interfaces a step closer to biological integration.