Fogging to combat dengue: factors influencing stakeholders' attitudes in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: Fogging is a conventional technique used to combat Aedes mosquitoes and prevent dengue disease. It is often implemented in outbreak areas or areas harbouring a high density of Aedes mosquitoes. Currently, studies on stakeholders' attitudes towards fogging are still limited in number. Therefore, this study aims to assess Malaysian attitudes, and identify the predicting factors influencing such attitudes. METHODS: A validated instrument was used to interview 399 randomly selected respondents from the public (n = 202, 50.6%) and scientists (n = 197, 49.4%) in the Klang Valley region of Malaysia. The data were analysed using PLS-SEM involving Smart-PLS software. RESULTS: The results confirmed that stakeholder attitudes toward fogging should be viewed in terms of a multi-dimensional association. The stakeholders surveyed were highly positive with regard to the application of fogging to control dengue but professed moderate concerns as to associated risks. The PLS-SEM analyses demonstrated that the perceived benefit was the most important factor influencing attitudes, followed by trust in key players. CONCLUSIONS: This result provides a good insight from the perspective of education and unravels the underlying fundamentals of stakeholders' attitudes toward the fogging technique. The findings also provide a positive indicator to the responsible parties involved to continue the usage of this technique in conjunction with improvements with regard to its safety aspects, and possibly in combination with other environmental-friendly alternatives in order to achieve a healthy environment without dengue in Malaysia.

Neuropsychological symptoms in workers handling cargo from shipping containers and export logs.

PURPOSE: Acute poisonings of workers handling shipping containers by fumigants and other harmful chemicals off-gassed from cargo have been reported but (sub)-chronic neuropsychological effects have not been well studied. METHODS: This cross-sectional study assessed, using standardised questionnaires, current (past 3-months) neuropsychological symptoms in 274 container handlers, 38 retail workers, 35 fumigators, and 18 log workers, all potentially exposed to fumigants and off-gassed chemicals, and a reference group of 206 construction workers. Prevalence odds ratios (OR), adjusted for age, ethnicity, smoking, alcohol consumption, education, personality traits and BMI, were calculated to assess associations with the total number of symptoms (≥ 3, ≥ 5 or ≥ 10) and specific symptom domains (neurological, psychosomatic, mood, memory/concentration, fatigue, and sleep). RESULTS: Compared to the reference group, exposed workers were more likely to report ≥ 10 symptoms, statistically significant only for retail workers (OR 6.8, 95% CI 1.9-24.3) who also reported more fatigue (OR 10.7, 95% CI 2.7-42.7). Container handlers with the highest exposure-duration were more likely to report ≥ 10 symptoms, both when compared with reference workers (OR 4.0, 95% CI 1.4-11.7) and with container handlers with shorter exposure duration (OR 7.5, 95% CI 1.7-32.8). The duration of container handling was particularly associated with symptoms in the memory/concentration domain, again both when compared to reference workers (OR 8.8, 95% CI 2.5-31.4) and workers with the lowest exposure-duration (OR 6.8, 95% CI 1.5-30.3). CONCLUSION: Container handlers may have an increased risk of neuropsychological symptoms, especially in the memory/concentration domain. Retail workers may also be at risk, but this requires confirmation in a larger study.

Effects and contributory factors of sulfur-fumigation on the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs evaluated by meta-analysis.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Sulfur-fumigation undoubtedly alters the chemical and metabolic profiles, but controversially affects the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs. AIM OF THE STUDY: To comprehensively evaluate the effects of sulfur-fumigation on the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs using a meta-analysis approach and further investigate the potential contributory factors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Literatures were retrieved on PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Chinese VIP Information and Wanfang, and the outcomes involved activities and toxicities were extracted using standard data extraction forms. The effects of sulfur-fumigation on the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs were evaluated by meta-analysis approaches. RESULTS: A total of sixteen studies were included in this study. Sulfur-fumigation reduced the efficacies of medicinal herbs with immune activity [thymus index (SMD = -1.81; P < 0.00001); spleen index (SMD = -1.11; P < 0.0001)], anti-oxidative activity [MDA (SMD = 2.60; P = 0.04); SOD (SMD = -2.21; P < 0.00001)], analgesic activity [heat tolerate time (SMD = -2.51; P = 0.001); writhing time (SMD = 0.36; P = 0.006)], anti-platelet aggregation activity (SMD = -1.84; P = 0.001), and anti-inflammatory activity [ear swelling degree (SMD = 0.47; P = 0.006)]. The reductions might be ascribed to sulfur-fumigation significantly reduced the contents of active ingredients in medicinal herbs, leading to dramatic decrease in the absorption of these ingredients and their metabolites in vivo. Furthermore, sulfur-fumigation induced the toxicities of medicinal herbs, mainly on hepatotoxicity, which might due to fumigation-induced residues of sulfur dioxide and heavy metal, and generations of sulfur-containing derivatives and toxic metabolites. Besides, administrated with sulfur-fumigated medicinal herbs with high sulfur ratio and/or higher dosage showed more significant toxicity. CONCLUSION: Sulfur-fumigation reduced the efficacy and safety of medicinal herbs, indicating sulfur-fumigation might not a feasible approach to process medicinal herbs. However, with obvious limitations, much more rigorous designed-trials are still needed to confirm the conclusion.

Negative effect of methyl bromide fumigation work on the central nervous system.

Methyl bromide (MB) is a fumigant that has been widely used for killing pests on plants in trade, soils, and structures worldwide due to its excellent permeability and insecticidal effect; however, MB should be replaced because it is an ozone-depleting substance. It is well-known that MB is highly toxic and hazardous to workers, but the effects of exposure in asymptomatic workers have not been explored. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of MB fumigation on the health of fumigators at a sensitive level. The electroencephalogram (EEG) and urinary bromide ion levels of 44 fumigators (the study group) and 20 inspectors (the control) were measured before and after fumigation work from February to August 2019 in Busan, Korea. The mean post-work concentration of bromide ion (18.311 µg/mg CRE) in the fumigators was significantly increased from the pre-work level (7.390 µg/mg CRE) (P<0.001). The fumigator post-work median frequencies (MDF) and alpha-to-theta ratios (ATR) of EEG index were significantly decreased compared to the pre-work values (P<0.05 for all indices). In contrast, there were no significant differences in inspector EEG indices and urinary bromide ion. The urinary bromide ion levels in all the subjects were negatively correlated with MDF (P = 0.032). In conclusion, fumigators' EEG indices and urinary bromide ion suggested that occupational exposure to MB negatively affected the health of workers, although the workers were asymptomatic.

The effects of sulfur fumigation processing on Panacis Quinquefolii Radix in chemical profile, immunoregulation and liver and kidney injury.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The influence of sulfur fumigation processing on chemical profile, pharmacological activity and safety of Chinese herbs has attracted great attention. Panacis Quinquefolii Radix (PQR) was more widely used as edible and medicinal than Ginseng because of its tonifying effect and characteristic of not getting inflamed. The disadvantage of sulfur fumigated (SF) Ginseng has been reported, but the systematic study of SF-PQR is deficient and urgently needed. AIM OF THE STUDY: To systematically describe the influence of sulfur fumigation on chemical profile, characteristic products, immunoregulation and liver and kidney injury of PQR. MATERIALS AND METHODS: ICP-MS and HPLC-DAD were used to detect 11 inorganic elements and 3 ginsenosides, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to distinguish SF-PQR from non-sulfur fumigated (NSF)-PQR by combining the content changes of inorganic elements and ginsenosides. UPLC/Orbitrap-MS was applied to screen the characteristic products (m/z) after sulfur fumigation. For the effectiveness and safety, male KM mice were used to compare the immunomodulatory effects of NSF-PQR or SF-PQR under both healty and cyclophosphamide induced immunosuppressive conditions by net growth rate of body weight, thymus and spleen indices, serum IL-6, SOD, BUN, AST levels, and HE staining of liver and kidney. RESULTS: Sulfur fumigation processing significantly reduced the contents of ginsenosides Rb1, Re and Rg1 with the elevation of inorganic elements in 20 batches PQR. Based on the scatter distribution of PCA, SF-PQR and NSF-PQR can be distinguished. According to the Rt, Precursor ion (m/z) and Product ion (m/z) produced by UPLC/Orbit trap-MS, R1-SO3 (m/z, 1059.53), Re-SO3 (m/z, 1025.55), Rg1-SO3 (m/z, 878.47), Ro-SO3 (m/z, 1035.32), Rb1-SO3 (m/z, 1179.58), and Rk3-SO3 (m/z, 745.40) could be confirmed as important markers for identifying SF-PQR. The effect of SF-PQR on reversing immunosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide was significantly reduced (P < 0.05) evidenced by the inhibition of net growth rate of body weight, immune organ index, IL-6 level and SOD activity. For healthy mice, SF-PQR not only failed to maintain the normal indexes, but also reduced the indexes to lower levels. After 2 weeks of continuous gastric administration, the abnormal liver and kidney functions in healthy mice were damaged and manifested by the increasing of BUN and AST levels, which was consistent with hepatic lesion area and renal tubular injury observed by HE staining. CONCLUSION: Sulfur fumigation processing not only reduced the immunomodulatory effect of PQR, but also brought the hidden danger in liver and kidney injury. The sulfonated products provided in this paper can be applied for the identification of SF-PQR accurately.

Pesticide Exposure Modifies DNA Methylation of Coding Region of WRAP53α, an Antisense Sequence of p53, in a Mexican Population.

The influence of pesticide exposure in alteration of DNA methylation patterns of specific genes is still limited, specifically in natural antisense transcripts (NAT), such as the WRAP53α gene. The aim of this study was to determine the methylation of the WRAP53α gene in mestizo and indigenous populations as well as its relationship with internal (age, sex, and body mass index) and external factors (pesticide exposure and micronutrient intake). A cross-sectional study was conducted including 91 mestizo individuals without occupational exposure to pesticides, 164 mestizo urban sprayers and 189 indigenous persons without occupational exposure to pesticides. Acute pesticide exposure was evaluated by measurement of urinary dialkylphosphate (DAP) concentration by gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer. Anthropometric characteristics, unhealthy habits, and chronic pesticide exposure were assessed using a structured questionnaire. The frequency of macro- and micronutrient intake was determined using SNUT software. DNA methylation of the WRAP53α gene was determined by pyrosequencing of bisulfite-modified DNA. The mestizo sprayers group had the higher values of %5mC. In addition, this group had the most DAP urinary concentration with respect to the indigenous and reference groups. Bivariate analysis showed an association between %5mC of the WRAP53α gene with micronutrient intake and pesticide exposure in mestizo sprayers, whereas changes in %5mC of the WRAP53α gene was associated with body mass index in the indigenous group. These data suggest that the %5mC of the WRAP53α gene can be influenced by pesticide exposure and ethnicity in the study population, and changes in the WRAP53α gene might cause an important cell process disturbance.

Sulfuryl Fluoride Poisonings in Structural Fumigation, a Highly Regulated Industry-Potential Causes and Solutions.

Structural fumigations using sulfuryl fluoride for the extermination of dry-wood termites are conducted by the thousands in California and other warm-weather states. Sulfuryl fluoride is an odorless gas that targets the nervous system and can cause respiratory irritation, pulmonary edema, nausea, vomiting, seizures, and death. Structural voids or compartments such as wall sockets, crawl spaces, cabinets, or cells in air mattresses may create ongoing exposure after a structure has been certified as safe. The authors describe a case of potential sulfuryl fluoride exposure to a family following home fumigation. Despite regulation, sulfuryl fluoride poisonings from structural fumigations continue to occur. This article examines the physical characteristics of sulfuryl fluoride and the regulatory oversight of its application, in an effort to understand how and why these poisonings happen. Increasing aeration times of fumigated structures, overseeing monitoring efficacy, and using technology to capture clearance data could reduce sulfuryl fluoride exposure and illness.

Exposure to fumigants in containers: a questionnaire assessment on 125 French dockers.

BACKGROUND: Cases of intoxications to gas from container's atmosphere have been described. For diagnosis, Fum Ex 2 questionnaire has been developed by the European Society for Environmental and Occupational Medicine. The aim of this study was to enhance knowledge on health effects of toxic substances in containers and to validate this questionnaire in medical follow-up and diagnosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In 2014, 125 French dockers answered the questionnaire in a face-to-face interview. RESULTS: 83.5% declared no exposure to fumigants or pesticides. Most frequently declared symptoms were fatigue and neurological disorders for dockers and respiratory irritation for refrigeration technicians. Only 28 workers wore regularly individual protection equipment. CONCLUSIONS: A "healthy worker" effect could explain low level of symptoms. Fum Ex 2 questionnaire is relevant for diagnosis. Workers in all steps of the logistic transport chain and consumers are exposed to containers' atmosphere.

Ameliorating Effects of Leaf Water Extract of Three Aromatic Plant Species on Ozone-Polluted Snap Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. 'Jiangjunyoudou').

Ozone (O3) is one of the major pollutants in near-surface air. In order to protect sensitive plants from O3 pollution, many kinds of protectants including synthetic ones, were assessed in previous studies. Although they have certain protective effects, some of them are not environment-friendly. In the present study, leaf water extracts of aromatic plants [Plectranthus hadiensis var. tomentosus (PHT), Pelargonium hortorum (PHB), Tagetes patula (TP)] were compared for mitigating the damages caused by O3 (150 ppb for 3 days, 8 h day-1) on snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris 'Jiangjunyoudou'). Our results showed that O3 fumigation impaired plasma membrane, decreased chlorophyll content, increased contents of malondialdehyde and superoxide anion, inhibited photosynthesis, and caused visible injury. Leaf water extracts of PHT, PHB or TP ameliorated the negative effects of O3. Among them, extract of PHT showed the greatest potential to alleviate the O3-caused injury, followed by PHB and TP.

Acute Illnesses and Injuries Related to Total Release Foggers - 10 States, 2007-2015.

Total release foggers (TRFs) (also known as "bug bombs") are pesticide products often used indoors to kill insects. After an earlier report found that TRFs pose a risk for acute illness (1), the Environmental Protection Agency required improved labels on TRFs manufactured after September 2012 (2). To examine the early impact of relabeling, the magnitude and characteristics of acute TRF-related illness were evaluated for the period 2007-2015. A total of 3,222 TRF-related illnesses were identified in 10 participating states, based on three data sources: Sentinel Event Notification System for Occupational Risk-Pesticides (SENSOR) programs, the California Department of Pesticide Regulation (CDPR) program, and poison control centers (PCCs) in Florida, Texas, and Washington. No statistically significant decline in the overall TRF-illness incidence rate was found. Failure to vacate treated premises during application was the most commonly reported cause of exposure. To reduce TRF-related illness, integrated pest management strategies (3) need to be adopted, as well as better communication about the hazards and proper uses of TRFs. Redesigning TRFs to prevent sudden, unexpected activation might also be useful.

Phosphine Analysis in Postmortem Specimens Following Inhalation of Phosphine: Fatal Aluminum Phosphide Poisoning in Children.

Phosphine is an insecticide for the fumigation of grains, animal feed, and leaf-stored tobacco, and it was used as a rodenticide in bulk grain stores. Phosphine poisoning may occur after accidental inhalation of phosphine, sometimes leading to death. Analysis of phosphine and its metabolites in postmortem specimens from seven fatal cases was conducted in this study, as well as postmortem specimens collected from rabbits exposed to phosphine. The total phosphine in postmortem specimens was analyzed by headspace gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Diagnosis of aluminum phosphide poisoning was made after postmortem toxicological analysis and confirmed by police investigation. The deaths of the children occurred after inhalation of phosphine generated from aluminum phosphide contacting moisture in the air in all seven fatal cases. The concentration of total phosphine in the biological fluids and tissues of victims ranged from 0.2 to 4.7 µg/mL (µg/g). Animal experiments demonstrated that the phosphine generated from aluminum phosphide could rapidly cause death. The toxicological analysis of postmortem specimens provides useful information in diagnosis of aluminum phosphide poisoning in forensic science. As an important fumigation pesticide, aluminum phosphide deserves special attention, especially since there is no specific antidote and there is a high fatality rate.

Influence of fumigants on sunflower seeds: Characteristics of fumigant desorption and changes in volatile profiles.

Fumigation of transport containers is common practice to protect stored products from pests. Yet little is known about the desorption times and effects of the highly toxic gases used in this process. To shed light on the behavior of fumigants in real food, we treated sunflower seeds (Helianthus annuus L.) with 100ppm phosphine (PH3), methyl bromide (MeBr) or 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) for 72h. The compound concentrations in the air were then analyzed by thermal desorption/2D gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry and flame photometric detection (TD-2D-GC-MS/FPD). A desorption time of several months was observed for DCE, whereas PH3 and MeBr were outgassed in a matter of days. To investigate possible interactions between gases and constituents of the seeds, non-fumigated, fumigated and outgassed samples were analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextraction GC-MS. We observed significantly different volatile profiles in fumigated and subsequently outgassed seeds compared to non-fumigated seeds. Whereas PH3-treated seeds released far more terpenoids, the volatile pattern of seeds exposed to DCE revealed significantly fewer terpenoids but more aldehydes. These changes are likely to affect food aroma characteristics.

Occurrence of Fumigants and Hazardous Off-gassing Chemicals in Shipping Containers Arriving in Sweden.

Containerized cargo shipment makes up the backbone of international trade. The principal aim of this cross-sectional study was to establish a qualitative and quantitative description of gaseous fumigants and volatile off-gassing substances facing workers tasked with entering shipping containers. A total of 372 packed and 119 empty shipping containers were sampled in six ports and two distribution centers in Sweden. Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and photoionization detection (PID) were the analytical methods applied to the bulk of samples. A small number of adsorbent samples were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results were compared to Swedish occupational exposure limits (OELs), the closest parallel to relevant work situations. Based on the FTIR analyses, 30 of 249 (12%) containers arrived with concentrations of fumigants and off-gassing substances above the 8-h OELs and close to 7% were above the short-term exposure limits. Eight detected chemicals were classified as carcinogens and 4% of the containers arrived with levels of carcinogens above the OELs, at a maximum 30 times the 8-h OEL. Considerable differences were observed between ports, ranging from 0 to 33% of containers arriving with concentrations above the OELs. It is believed that all observation results, apart from a single instance of a confirmed fumigant, phosphine, at 3 p.p.m., and possibly three instances of carbon dioxide, can be attributed to off-gassing substances. The FTIR methodology proved useful for quick preliminary checks and in-depth screening and identification. The PID method produced both false-negative and false-positive results where only 48% matched the FTIR observations. Adsorbent sampling with GC-MS analysis was useful for confirming volatile organic compounds but was deemed too slow for day-to-day screening. The high frequency of contaminated containers, the detection of several carcinogens, and the sporadic occurrences of high levels of fumigants are serious concerns that need to be properly recognized in order to protect the workers at risk.

Notes from the Field: Acute Sulfuryl Fluoride Poisoning in a Family - Florida, August 2015.

On August 19, 2015, the Florida Department of Health (FDOH) was notified by the Florida Poison Information Center Network and a local hospital of possible sulfuryl fluoride poisonings affecting a family in Martin County, in southeastern Florida. Sulfuryl fluoride is a highly toxic (toxicity category I) gas fumigant used for termite control of homes and buildings.* FDOH personnel in Martin County commenced an investigation and identified a family of five (a grandmother, mother, father, son, and daughter) exposed to sulfuryl fluoride after their house was fumigated. The Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Criminal Investigation Division also conducted an investigation after being notified by FDOH. Medical records were reviewed, and the father was interviewed by FDOH.

Effect of phytosanitary irradiation and methyl bromide fumigation on the physical, sensory, and microbiological quality of blueberries and sweet cherries.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to determine whether irradiation could serve as a suitable phytosanitary treatment alternative to methyl bromide (MB) fumigation for blueberries and sweet cherry and also to determine the effect of phytosanitary irradiation treatment on survival of Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes on these fruit. 'Bluecrop' blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum) and 'Sweetheart' cherries (Prunus avium) were irradiated at 0.4 kGy or fumigated with methyl bromide and evaluated for quality attributes during storage. RESULTS: Irradiation caused an immediate decrease in firmness of both fruit without further significant change during storage. Fumigated fruit, in contrast, softened by 11-14% during storage. Irradiation did not adversely affect blueberry and cherry shelf-life. MB fumigation did not impact blueberry and cherry quality attributes initially; however, fumigated fruit exhibited greater damage and mold growth than the control and irradiated samples during storage. Irradiation at 400 Gy resulted in a ∼1 log CFU g(-1) reduction in Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes counts, indicating that this treatment cannot significantly enhance safety. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that irradiation at a target dose of 0.4 kGy for phytosanitary treatment does not negatively impact blueberry and cherry quality and can serve as an alternative to methyl bromide fumigation. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Severe Illness from Methyl Bromide Exposure at a Condominium Resort--U.S. Virgin Islands, March 2015.

On March 22, 2015, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) was notified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of four cases of suspected acute methyl bromide toxicity among family members vacationing at a condominium resort in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Methyl bromide is a pesticide that has been banned in the United States for use in homes and other residential settings. An investigation conducted by the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Health (VIDOH), the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR), and EPA confirmed that methyl bromide had been used as a fumigant on March 18 in the building where the family had been residing, 2 days before they were transported to the hospital; three family members had life-threatening illness. On March 25, 2015, a stop-use order for methyl bromide was issued by DPNR to the pest control company that had performed the fumigation. Subsequent investigation revealed that previous fumigation with methyl bromide had occurred on October 20, 2014, at the same condominium resort. In addition to the four ill family members, 37 persons who might have been exposed to methyl bromide as a result of the October 2014 or March 2015 fumigations were identified by VIDOH and ATSDR. Standardized health questionnaires were administered to 16 of the 20 persons for whom contact information was available; six of 16 had symptoms consistent with methyl bromide exposure, including headache and fatigue. Pest control companies should be aware that use of methyl bromide is banned in homes and other residential settings, and clinicians should be aware of the toxicologic syndrome that exposure to methyl bromide can cause.

Activated carbons from end-products of tree nut and tree fruit production as sorbents for removing methyl bromide in ventilation effluent following postharvest chamber fumigation.

End-products of tree nuts and tree fruits grown in California, USA were evaluated for the ability to remove methyl bromide (MB) from ventilation effluent following postharvest chamber fumigation. Activated carbon sorbents from walnut and almond shells as well as peach and prune pits were prepared using different methods of pyrolysis, activation, and quenching. Each source and preparation was evaluated for yield from starting material (%, m/m) and performance on tests where MB-containing airstreams were directed through a columnar bed of the activated carbon in an experimental apparatus, termed a parallel adsorbent column tester, which was constructed as a scaled-down model of a chamber ventilation system. We report the number of doses needed to first observe the breakthrough of MB downstream of the bed and the capacity of the activated carbon for MB (%, m/m) based on a fractional percentage of MB mass sorbed at breakthrough relative to mass of the bed prior to testing. Results were based on a novel application of solid-phase microextraction with time-weighted averaging sampling of MB concentration in airstreams, which was quantitative across the range of fumigation-relevant conditions and statistically unaffected by relative humidity. Activated carbons from prune pits, prepared either by steam activation or carbon dioxide activation coupled to water quenching, received the greatest number of doses prior to breakthrough and had the highest capacity, approximately 12-14%, outperforming a commercially marketed activated carbon derived from coconut shells. Experimental evidence is presented that links discrepancy in performance to the relative potential for activated carbons to preferentially sorb water vapor relative to MB.

Efficiency of Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. essential oil as a mycotoxicant against postharvest mycobiota of table grapes.

BACKGROUND: In order to get a potent botanical fungicide for the management of fungal decay of table grapes, an experiment was conducted in which 20 essential oils of higher plants were screened at 0.33 µL mL(-1) against dominant fungi causing decay of table grapes, including Aspergillus flavus, A. niger and A. ochraceus. Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory/fungicidal concentration, fungitoxic spectrum and mycotoxin inhibition activity of the most potent oil were determined. The efficacy of the most potent oil in preservation of table grapes, along with organoleptic evaluation, was also carried out by storing 1 kg of grapes in the oil vapour. RESULTS: Artemisia nilagirica oil was found to be most toxic, exhibiting 100% mycelia inhibition of all test fungi. Moreover, 0.29 µL mL(-1) A. nilagirica oil was fungistatic and 0.58 µL mL(-1) was fungicidal for all tested species of Aspergillus. The oil exhibited a broad range of fungitoxicity against other grape berry-rotting fungi. Artemisia nilagirica oil completely suppressed the growth and mycotoxin (AFB1 and OTA) secretion of aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic strains of Aspergillus at 1.6 µL mL(-1) . During the in vivo experiment, fumigation of 1 kg of table grapes with 200 and 300 µL dosage of A. nilagirica oil enhanced the shelf life for up to 9 days. The oil did not show any phytotoxic effect. Besides, oil application did not substantively change the sensory properties of the fruits. CONCLUSION: Artemisia nilagirica oil can be used as an alternative botanical fungicide for the control of fruit-rotting fungi of stored grapes.