Development and Prospects of Furin Inhibitors for Therapeutic Applications.

Furin, a serine protease enzyme located in the Golgi apparatus of animal cells, plays a crucial role in cleaving precursor proteins into their mature, active forms. It is ubiquitously expressed across various tissues, including the brain, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, liver, pancreas, and reproductive organs. Since its discovery in 1990, furin has been recognized as a significant therapeutic target, leading to the active development of furin inhibitors for potential use in antiviral, antibacterial, anticancer, and other therapeutic applications. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress in the development and characterization of furin inhibitors, encompassing peptides, linear and macrocyclic peptidomimetics, and non-peptide compounds, highlighting their potential in the treatment of both infectious and non-infectious diseases.

Olive Leaf Extract Downregulates the Protein Expression of Key SARS-CoV-2 Entry Enzyme ACE-2, TMPRSS2, and Furin.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses ongoing global health challenges due to its propensity for mutations, which can undermine vaccine efficacy. With no definitive treatment available, urgent research into affordable and biocompatible therapeutic agents is extremely urgent. Angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), transmembrane protease serine subtype 2 (TMPRSS2), and Furin enzymes, which allow the virus to enter cells, are particularly important as potential drug targets among scientists. Olive leaf extract (OLE) has garnered attention for its potential against Coronavirus Disease-9 (COVID-19), yet its mechanism remains understudied. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of OLE on ACE-2, TMPRSS2, and Furin protein expressions by cell culture study. Total phenol, flavonoid content, and antioxidant capacity were measured by photometric methods, and oleuropein levels were measured by liquid LC-HR-MS. Cell viability was analyzed by ATP levels using a luminometric method. ACE-2, TMPRSS2, and Furin expressions were analyzed by the Western Blotting method. ACE-2, TMPRSS2, and Furin protein expression levels were significantly lower in a dose dependent manner and the highest inhibition was seen at 100 µg/ml OLE. The results showed that OLE may be a promising treatment candidate for COVID-19 disease. However, further studies need to be conducted in cells co-infected with the virus.

Structure-based virtual screening methods for the identification of novel phytochemical inhibitors targeting furin protease for the management of COVID-19.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus, is a highly contagious respiratory disease with widespread societal impact. The symptoms range from cough, fever, and pneumonia to complications affecting various organs, including the heart, kidneys, and nervous system. Despite various ongoing efforts, no effective drug has been developed to stop the spread of the virus. Although various types of medications used to treat bacterial and viral diseases have previously been employed to treat COVID-19 patients, their side effects have also been observed. The way SARS-CoV-2 infects the human body is very specific, as its spike protein plays an important role. The S subunit of virus spike protein cleaved by human proteases, such as furin protein, is an initial and important step for its internalization into a human host. Keeping this context, we attempted to inhibit the furin using phytochemicals that could produce minimal side effects. For this, we screened 408 natural phytochemicals from various plants having antiviral properties, against furin protein, and molecular docking and dynamics simulations were performed. Based on the binding score, the top three compounds (robustaflavone, withanolide, and amentoflavone) were selected for further validation. MM/GBSA energy calculations revealed that withanolide has the lowest binding energy of -57.2 kcal/mol followed by robustaflavone and amentoflavone with a binding energy of -45.2 kcal/mol and -39.68 kcal/mol, respectively. Additionally, ADME analysis showed drug-like properties for these three lead compounds. Hence, these natural compounds robustaflavone, withanolide, and amentoflavone, may have therapeutic potential for the management of SARS-CoV-2 by targeting furin.

Screening of Small-Molecule Libraries Using SARS-CoV-2-Derived Sequences Identifies Novel Furin Inhibitors.

SARS-CoV-2 is the pathogen responsible for the most recent global pandemic, which has claimed hundreds of thousands of victims worldwide. Despite remarkable efforts to develop an effective vaccine, concerns have been raised about the actual protection against novel variants. Thus, researchers are eager to identify alternative strategies to fight against this pathogen. Like other opportunistic entities, a key step in the SARS-CoV-2 lifecycle is the maturation of the envelope glycoprotein at the RARR685↓ motif by the cellular enzyme Furin. Inhibition of this cleavage greatly affects viral propagation, thus representing an ideal drug target to contain infection. Importantly, no Furin-escape variants have ever been detected, suggesting that the pathogen cannot replace this protease by any means. Here, we designed a novel fluorogenic SARS-CoV-2-derived substrate to screen commercially available and custom-made libraries of small molecules for the identification of new Furin inhibitors. We found that a peptide substrate mimicking the cleavage site of the envelope glycoprotein of the Omicron variant (QTQTKSHRRAR-AMC) is a superior tool for screening Furin activity when compared to the commercially available Pyr-RTKR-AMC substrate. Using this setting, we identified promising novel compounds able to modulate Furin activity in vitro and suitable for interfering with SARS-CoV-2 maturation. In particular, we showed that 3-((5-((5-bromothiophen-2-yl)methylene)-4-oxo-4,5 dihydrothiazol-2-yl)(3-chloro-4-methylphenyl)amino)propanoic acid (P3, IC50 = 35 µM) may represent an attractive chemical scaffold for the development of more effective antiviral drugs via a mechanism of action that possibly implies the targeting of Furin secondary sites (exosites) rather than its canonical catalytic pocket. Overall, a SARS-CoV-2-derived peptide was investigated as a new substrate for in vitro high-throughput screening (HTS) of Furin inhibitors and allowed the identification of compound P3 as a promising hit with an innovative chemical scaffold. Given the key role of Furin in infection and the lack of any Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved Furin inhibitor, P3 represents an interesting antiviral candidate.

Fragment-Based Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of Aminoisoindole-Derived Furin Inhibitors.

A 1H-isoindol-3-amine was identified as suitable P1 group for the proprotein convertase furin using a crystallographic screening with a set of 20 fragments known to occupy the S1 pocket of trypsin-like serine proteases. Its binding mode is very similar to that observed for the P1 group of benzamidine-derived peptidic furin inhibitors suggesting an aminomethyl substitution of this fragment to obtain a couplable P1 residue for the synthesis of substrate-analogue furin inhibitors. The obtained inhibitors possess a slightly improved picomolar inhibitory potency compared to their benzamidine-derived analogues. The crystal structures of two inhibitors in complex with furin revealed that the new P1 group is perfectly suited for incorporation in peptidic furin inhibitors. Selected inhibitors were tested for antiviral activity against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and a furin-dependent influenza A virus (SC35M/H7N7) in A549 human lung cells and demonstrated an efficient inhibition of virus activation and replication at low micromolar or even submicromolar concentrations. First results suggest that the Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor GPCR-X2 could be a potential off-target for certain benzamidine-derived furin inhibitors.

Permethrin as a Potential Furin Inhibitor through a Novel Non-Competitive Allosteric Inhibition.

Furin is a potential target protein associated with numerous diseases; especially closely related to tumors and multiple viral infections including SARS-CoV-2. Most of the existing efficient furin inhibitors adopt a substrate analogous structure, and other types of small molecule inhibitors need to be discovered urgently. In this study, a high-throughput screening combining virtual and physical screening of natural product libraries was performed, coupled with experimental validation and preliminary mechanistic assays at the molecular level, cellular level, and molecular simulation. A novel furin inhibitor, permethrin, which is a derivative from pyrethrin I generated by Pyrethrum cinerariifolium Trev. was identified, and this study confirmed that it binds to a novel allosteric pocket of furin through non-competitive inhibition. It exhibits a very favorable protease-selective inhibition and good cellular activity and specificity. In summary, permethrin shows a new parent nucleus with a new mode of inhibition. It could be used as a highly promising lead compound against furin for targeting related tumors and various resistant viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2.

Cationic Geminoid Peptide Amphiphiles Inhibit DENV2 Protease, Furin, and Viral Replication.

Dengue is an important arboviral infectious disease for which there is currently no specific cure. We report gemini-like (geminoid) alkylated amphiphilic peptides containing lysines in combination with glycines or alanines (C15H31C(O)-Lys-(Gly or Ala)nLys-NHC16H33, shorthand notation C16-KXnK-C16 with X = A or G, and n = 0-2). The representatives with 1 or 2 Ala inhibit dengue protease and human furin, two serine proteases involved in dengue virus infection that have peptides with cationic amino acids as their preferred substrates, with IC50 values in the lower µM range. The geminoid C16-KAK-C16 combined inhibition of DENV2 protease (IC50 2.3 µM) with efficacy against replication of wildtype DENV2 in LLC-MK2 cells (EC50 4.1 µM) and an absence of toxicity. We conclude that the lysine-based geminoids have activity against dengue virus infection, which is based on their inhibition of the proteases involved in viral replication and are therefore promising leads to further developing antiviral therapeutics, not limited to dengue.

In vitro characterization of the furin inhibitor MI-1851: Albumin binding, interaction with cytochrome P450 enzymes and cytotoxicity.

The substrate-analog furin inhibitor MI-1851 can suppress the cleavage of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and consequently produces significant antiviral effect on infected human airway epithelial cells. In this study, the interaction of inhibitor MI-1851 was examined with human serum albumin using fluorescence spectroscopy and ultrafiltration techniques. Furthermore, the impacts of MI-1851 on human microsomal hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6 and 3A4 activities were assessed based on fluorometric assays. The inhibitory action was also examined on human recombinant CYP3A4 enzyme and on hepatocytes. In addition, microsomal stability (60 min) and cytotoxicity were tested as well. MI-1851 showed no relevant interaction with human serum albumin and was significantly depleted by human microsomes. Furthermore, it did not inhibit CYP1A2, 2C9, 2C19 and 2D6 enzymes. In human hepatocytes, CYP3A4 was significantly suppressed by MI-1851 and weak inhibition was noticed in regard to human microsomes and human recombinant CYP3A4. Finally, MI-1851 did not impair the viability and the oxidative status of primary human hepatocytes (up to 100 µM concentration). Based on these observations, furin inhibitor MI-1851 appears to be potential drug candidates in the treatment of COVID-19, due to the involvement of furin in S protein priming and thus activation of the pandemic SARS-CoV-2.

Identification of Kukoamine A, Zeaxanthin, and Clexane as New Furin Inhibitors.

The endogenous protease furin is a key protein in many different diseases, such as cancer and infections. For this reason, a wide range of studies has focused on targeting furin from a therapeutic point of view. Our main objective consisted of identifying new compounds that could enlarge the furin inhibitor arsenal; secondarily, we assayed their adjuvant effect in combination with a known furin inhibitor, CMK, which avoids the SARS-CoV-2 S protein cleavage by means of that inhibition. Virtual screening was carried out to identify potential furin inhibitors. The inhibition of physiological and purified recombinant furin by screening selected compounds, Clexane, and these drugs in combination with CMK was assayed in fluorogenic tests by using a specific furin substrate. The effects of the selected inhibitors from virtual screening on cell viability (293T HEK cell line) were assayed by means of flow cytometry. Through virtual screening, Zeaxanthin and Kukoamine A were selected as the main potential furin inhibitors. In fluorogenic assays, these two compounds and Clexane inhibited both physiological and recombinant furin in a dose-dependent way. In addition, these compounds increased physiological furin inhibition by CMK, showing an adjuvant effect. In conclusion, we identified Kukoamine A, Zeaxanthin, and Clexane as new furin inhibitors. In addition, these drugs were able to increase furin inhibition by CMK, so they could also increase its efficiency when avoiding S protein proteolysis, which is essential for SARS-CoV-2 cell infection.

Theta-Defensins to Counter COVID-19 as Furin Inhibitors: In Silico Efficiency Prediction and Novel Compound Design.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was characterized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) in Dec. 2019. SARS-CoV-2 binds to the cell membrane through spike proteins on its surface and infects the cell. Furin, a host-cell enzyme, possesses a binding site for the spike protein. Thus, molecules that block furin could potentially be a therapeutic solution. Defensins are antimicrobial peptides that can hypothetically inhibit furin because of their arginine-rich structure. Theta-defensins, a subclass of defensins, have attracted attention as drug candidates due to their small size, unique structure, and involvement in several defense mechanisms. Theta-defensins could be a potential treatment for COVID-19 through furin inhibition and an anti-inflammatory mechanism. Note that inflammatory events are a significant and deadly condition that could happen at the later stages of COVID-19 infection. Here, the potential of theta-defensins against SARS-CoV-2 infection was investigated through in silico approaches. Based on docking analysis results, theta-defensins can function as furin inhibitors. Additionally, a novel candidate peptide against COVID-19 with optimal properties regarding antigenicity, stability, electrostatic potential, and binding strength was proposed. Further in vitro/in vivo investigations could verify the efficiency of the designed novel peptide.

A highly selective, cell-permeable furin inhibitor BOS-318 rescues key features of cystic fibrosis airway disease.

In cystic fibrosis (CF), excessive furin activity plays a critical role in the activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), dysregulation of which contributes to airway dehydration, ineffective mucociliary clearance (MCC), and mucus obstruction. Here, we report a highly selective, cell-permeable furin inhibitor, BOS-318, that derives selectivity by eliciting the formation of a new, unexpected binding pocket independent of the active site catalytic triad. Using human ex vivo models, BOS-318 showed significant suppression of ENaC, which led to enhanced airway hydration and an ∼30-fold increase in MCC rate. Furin inhibition also protected ENaC from subsequent activation by neutrophil elastase, a soluble protease dominant in CF airways. Additional therapeutic benefits include protection against epithelial cell death induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A. Our findings demonstrate the utility of selective furin inhibition as a mutation-agnostic approach that can correct features of CF airway pathophysiology in a manner expected to deliver therapeutic value.

Why All the Fury over Furin?

Analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 sequence revealed a multibasic furin cleavage site at the S1/S2 boundary of the spike protein distinguishing this virus from SARS-CoV. Furin, the best-characterized member of the mammalian proprotein convertases, is an ubiquitously expressed single pass type 1 transmembrane protein. Cleavage of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by furin promotes viral entry into lung cells. While furin knockout is embryonically lethal, its knockout in differentiated somatic cells is not, thus furin provides an exciting therapeutic target for viral pathogens including SARS-CoV-2 and bacterial infections. Several peptide-based and small-molecule inhibitors of furin have been recently reported, and select cocrystal structures have been solved, paving the way for further optimization and selection of clinical candidates. This perspective highlights furin structure, substrates, recent inhibitors, and crystal structures with emphasis on furin's role in SARS-CoV-2 infection, where the current data strongly suggest its inhibition as a promising therapeutic intervention for SARS-CoV-2.

COVID-19 disease and malignant cancers: The impact for the furin gene expression in susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2.

Furin is a proprotein convertase that activates different kinds of regulatory proteins, including SARS-CoV-2 spike protein which contains an additional furin-specific cleavage site. It is essential in predicting cancer patients' susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 and the disease outcomes due to varying furin expressions in tumor tissues. In this study, we analyzed furin's expression, methylation, mutation rate, functional enrichment, survival rate and COVID-19 outcomes in normal and cancer tissues using online databases, and our IHC. As a result, furin presented with biased expression profiles in normal tissues, showing 12.25-fold higher than ACE2 in the lungs. The furin expression in tumors were significantly increased in ESCA and TGCT, and decreased in DLBC and THYM, indicating furin may play critical mechanistic functions in COVID-19 viral entry into cells in these cancer patients. Line with furin over/downexpression, furin promoter hypo-/hyper-methylation may be the regulatory cause of disease and lead to pathogenesis of ESCA and THYM. Furthermore, presence of FURIN-201 isoform with functional domains (P_proprotein, Peptidase_S8 and S8_pro-domain) is highest in all cancer types in comparison to other isoforms, demonstrating its use in tumorigenesis and SARS-Cov-2 entry into tumor tissues. Furin mutation frequency was highest in UCES, and its mutation might elevate ACE2 expression in LUAD and UCEC, reduce ACE2 expression in COAD, elevate HSPA5 expression in PAAD, and elevate TMPRSS2 expression in BRCA. These results showed that furin mutations mostly increased expression of ACE2, HSPA5, and TMPRSS2 in certain cancers, indicating furin mutations might facilitate COVID-19 cell entry in cancer patients. In addition, high expression of furin was significantly inversely correlated with long overall survival (OS) in LGG and correlated with long OS in COAD and KIRC, indicating that it could be used as a favorable prognostic marker for cancer patients' survival. GO and KEGG demonstrated that furin was mostly enriched in genes for metabolic and biosynthetic processes, retinal dehydrogenase activity, tRNA methyltransferase activity, and genes involving COVID-19, further supporting its role in COVID-19 and cancer metabolism. Moreover, Cordycepin (CD) inhibited furin expression in a dosage dependent manner. Altogether, furin's high expression might not only implies increased susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 and higher severity of COVID-19 symptoms in cancer patients, but also it highlights the need for cancer treatment and therapy during the COVID-19 pandemic. CD might have a potential to develop an anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug through inhibiting furin expression.

OFF-State-Specific Inhibition of the Proprotein Convertase Furin.

The pro-protein convertase furin is a highly specific serine protease involved in the proteolytic maturation of many proteins in the secretory pathway. It also activates surface proteins of many viruses including the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Furin inhibitors effectively suppress viral replication and thus are promising antiviral therapeutics with broad application potential. Polybasic substrate-like ligands typically trigger conformational changes shifting furin's active site cleft from the OFF-state to the ON-state. Here, we solved the X-ray structures of furin in complex with four different arginine mimetic compounds with reduced basicity. These guanylhydrazone-based inhibitor complexes showed for the first time an active site-directed binding mode to furin's OFF-state conformation. The compounds undergo unique interactions within the S1 pocket, largely different compared to substrate-like ligands. A second binding site was identified at the S4/S5 pocket of furin. Crystallography-based titration experiments confirmed the S1 site as the primary binding pocket. We also tested the proprotein convertases PC5/6 and PC7 for inhibition by guanylhydrazones and found an up to 7-fold lower potency for PC7. Interestingly, the observed differences in the Ki values correlated with the sequence conservation of the PCs at the allosteric sodium binding site. Therefore, OFF-state-specific targeting of furin can serve as a valuable strategy for structure-based development of PC-selective small-molecule inhibitors.

D614G Substitution of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Increases Syncytium Formation and Virus Titer via Enhanced Furin-Mediated Spike Cleavage.

Since the D614G substitution in the spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged, the variant strain has undergone a rapid expansion to become the most abundant strain worldwide. Therefore, this substitution may provide an advantage for viral spreading. To explore the mechanism, we analyzed 18 viral isolates containing S proteins with either G614 or D614 (S-G614 and S-D614, respectively). The plaque assay showed a significantly higher virus titer in S-G614 than in S-D614 isolates. We further found increased cleavage of the S protein at the furin substrate site, a key event that promotes syncytium formation, in S-G614 isolates. The enhancement of the D614G substitution in the cleavage of the S protein and in syncytium formation has been validated in cells expressing S protein. The effect on the syncytium was abolished by furin inhibitor treatment and mutation of the furin cleavage site, suggesting its dependence on cleavage by furin. Our study pointed to the impact of the D614G substitution on syncytium formation through enhanced furin-mediated S cleavage, which might increase the transmissibility and infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 strains containing S-G614. IMPORTANCE Analysis of viral genomes and monitoring of the evolutionary trajectory of SARS-CoV-2 over time has identified the D614G substitution in spike (S) as the most prevalent expanding variant worldwide, which might confer a selective advantage in transmission. Several studies showed that the D614G variant replicates and transmits more efficiently than the wild-type virus, but the mechanism is unclear. By comparing 18 virus isolates containing S with either D614 or G614, we found significantly higher virus titers in association with higher furin protease-mediated cleavage of S, an event that promotes syncytium formation and virus infectivity, in the S-G614 viruses. The effect of the D614G substitution on furin-mediated S cleavage and the resulting enhancement of the syncytium phenotype has been validated in S-expressing cells. This study suggests a possible effect of the D614G substitution on S of SARS-CoV-2; the antiviral effect through targeting furin protease is worthy of being investigated in proper animal models.

FURIN and placental syncytialisation: a cautionary tale.

FURIN is a pro-protein convertase previously shown to be important for placental syncytialisation (Zhou et al. [1]), a process of cell fusion whereby placental cytotrophoblast cells fuse to form a multinucleated syncytium. This finding has been broadly accepted however, we have evidence suggesting the contrary. Spontaneously syncytialising term primary human trophoblast cells and BeWo choriocarcinoma cells were treated with either FURIN siRNA or negative control siRNA or the protease inhibitor, DEC-RVKR-CMK, or vehicle. Cells were then left to either spontaneously syncytialise (primary trophoblasts) or were induced to syncytialise with forskolin (BeWo). Effects on syncytialisation were measured by determining human chorionic gonadotrophin secretion and E-cadherin protein levels. We showed that FURIN is not important for syncytialisation in either cell type. However, in primary trophoblasts another protease also inhibited by DEC-RVKR-CMK, may be involved. Our results directly contrast with those published by Zhou et al. Zhou et al. however, used first trimester villous explants to study syncytialisation, and we used term primary trophoblasts. Therefore, we suggest that FURIN may be involved in syncytialisation of first trimester trophoblasts, but not term trophoblasts. What is more concerning is that our results using BeWo cells do not agree with their results, even though for the most part, we used the same experimental design. It is unclear why these experiments yielded different results, however we wanted to draw attention to simple differences in measuring syncytialisation or flaws in method reporting (including omission of cell line source and passage numbers, siRNA concentration and protein molecular weights) and choice of immunoblot loading controls, that could impact on experimental outcomes. Our study shows that careful reporting of methods by authors and thorough scrutiny by referees are vital. Furthermore, a universal benchmark for measuring syncytialisation is required so that various studies of syncytialisation can be validated.

Screening for inhibitory effects of crude drugs on furin-like enzymatic activities.

The spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) contains a cleavage motif R-X-X-R for furin-like enzymes at the boundary of the S1/S2 subunits. The cleavage of the site by cellular proteases is essential for S protein activation and virus entry. We screened the inhibitory effects of crude drugs on in vitro furin-like enzymatic activities using a fluorogenic substrate with whole-cell lysates. Of the 124 crude drugs listed in the Japanese Pharmacopeia, aqueous ethanolic extract of Cnidii Monnieris Fructus, which is the dried fruit of Cnidium monnieri Cussion, significantly inhibited the furin-like enzymatic activities. We further fractionated the plant extract and isolated the two active compounds with the inhibitory activity, namely, imperatorin and osthole, whose IC50 values were 1.45 mM and 9.45 µM, respectively. Our results indicated that Cnidii Monnieris Fructus might exert inhibitory effects on furin-like enzymatic activities, and that imperatorin and osthole of the crude drug could be potential inhibitors of the motif cleavage.

Aframomum melegueta secondary metabolites exhibit polypharmacology against SARS-CoV-2 drug targets: in vitro validation of furin inhibition.

COVID-19 pandemic is currently decimating the world's most advanced technologies and largest economies and making its way to the continent of Africa. Weak medical infrastructure and over-reliance on medical aids may eventually predict worse outcomes in Africa. To reverse this trend, Africa must re-evaluate the only area with strategic advantage; phytotherapy. One of the many plants with previous antiviral potency is against RNA viruses is Aframomum melegueta. In this study, one hundred (100) A. melegueta secondary metabolites have been mined and computational evaluated for inhibition of host furin, and SARS-COV-2 targets including 3C-like proteinase (Mpro /3CLpro ), 2'-O-ribose methyltransferase (nsp16) and surface glycoprotein/ACE2 receptor interface. Silica-gel column partitioning of A. melegueta fruit/seed resulted in 6 fractions tested against furin activity. Diarylheptanoid (Letestuianin A), phenylpropanoid (4-Cinnamoyl-3-hydroxy-spiro[furan-5,2'-(1'H)-indene]-1',2,3'(2'H,5H)-trione), flavonoids (Quercetin, Apigenin and Tectochrysin) have been identified as high-binding compounds to SARS-COV-2 targets in a polypharmacology manner. Di-ethyl-ether (IC50 = 0.03 mg/L), acetone (IC50 = 1.564 mg/L), ethyl-acetate (IC50 = 0.382 mg/L) and methanol (IC50 = 0.438 mg/L) fractions demonstrated the best inhibition in kinetic assay while DEF, ASF and MEF completely inhibited furin-recognition sequence containing Ebola virus-pre-glycoprotein. In conclusion, A. melegueta and its secondary metabolites have potential for addressing the therapeutic needs of African population during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Overview of Targets and Potential Drugs of SARS-CoV-2 According to the Viral Replication.

Since the novel coronavirus pandemic, people around the world have been touched in varying degrees, and this pandemic has raised a major global health concern. As there is no effective drug or vaccine, it is urgent to find therapeutic drugs that can serve to deal with the current epidemic situation in all countries and regions. We searched drugs and response measures for SARS-CoV-2 in the PubMed database, and then updated the potential targets and therapeutic drugs from the perspective of the viral replication cycle. The drug research studies of the viral replication cycle are predominantly focused on the process of the virus entering cells, proteases, and RdRp. The inhibitors of the virus entry to cells and RdRp, such as Arbidol, remdesivir, favipiravir, EIDD-2081, and ribavirin, are in clinical trials, while most of the protease inhibitors are mainly calculated by molecular docking technology, which needs in vivo and in vitro experiments to prove the effect for SARS-CoV-2. This review summarizes the drugs targeting the viral replication process and provides a basis and directions for future drug development and reuse on the protein level of COVID-19.

Phytopharmaceuticals mediated Furin and TMPRSS2 receptor blocking: can it be a potential therapeutic option for Covid-19?

BACKGROUND: Currently, novel coronavirus disease (Covid-19) outbreak creates global panic across the continents, as people from almost all countries and territories have been affected by this highly contagious viral disease. The scenario is deteriorating due to lack of proper & specific target-oriented pharmacologically safe prophylactic agents or drugs, and or any effective vaccine. drug development is urgently required to back in the normalcy in the community and to combat this pandemic. PURPOSE: Thus, we have proposed two novel drug targets, Furin and TMPRSS2, as Covid-19 treatment strategy. We have highlighted this target-oriented novel drug delivery strategy, based on their pathophysiological implication on SARS-CoV-2 infection, as evident from earlier SARS-CoV-1, MERS, and influenza virus infection via host cell entry, priming, fusion, and endocytosis. STUDY DESIGN &  METHODS: An earlier study suggested that Furin and TMPRSS2 knockout mice had reduced level of viral load and a lower degree of organ damage such as the lung. The present study thus highlights the promise of some selected novel and potential anti-viral Phytopharmaceutical that bind to Furin and TMPRSS2 as target. RESULT: Few of them had shown promising anti-viral response in both preclinical and clinical study with acceptable therapeutic safety-index. CONCLUSION: Hence, this strategy may limit life-threatening Covid-19 infection and its mortality rate through nano-suspension based intra-nasal or oral nebulizer spray, to treat mild to moderate SARS-COV-2 infection when Furin and TMPRSS2 receptor may initiate to express and activate for processing the virus to cause cellular infection by replication within the host cell and blocking of host-viral interaction.