Unnamed, not unskilled: Toward a new labor history of pharmacy.

By recovering the dependent, often enslaved, laborers who helped to make European medicines commercially available in the New England colonies, this article offers a new history of early American pharmaceutical knowledge and production. It does so by considering the life and labor of an unnamed, enslaved assistant who was said to make tinctures, elixirs, and other common remedies in a 1758 letter between two business partners, Silvester Gardiner, a successful surgeon and apothecary in Boston, Massachusetts, and William Jepson, his former apprentice, in Hartford, Connecticut. Using strategies from slavery and critical archive studies, as well as from social history and the history of medicine, this article emphasizes the materiality and embodiment of pharmaceutical production and follows fragmentary evidence beyond the business archive to reverse the systemic erasure of enslaved and indentured laborers from the records of eighteenth-century manufacturers of medicines. The medicine trades of men like Gardiner and Jepson appear more reliant upon dependent laborers - named and unnamed - who not only performed rote tasks but brought their experience and judgment to their labors as well. Their contributions could be obviously medical (preparing remedies) or more ambiguous (stoking fires, shipping goods), but these actions together constituted early modern pharmacy, enabled the expansion of the transatlantic medicine trade, and laid the foundations for the more self-sufficient and industrialized pharmacy that developed in the nineteenth century. Centering the skill and knowledge among subordinated laborers in one facet of an emergent transatlantic care economy affirms the entanglement of slavery and science and underscores the necessity of asking new questions of old sources.

Coleção de modelos anatômicos do Museu da Pharmacia da Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto / The anatomical model collection at the Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto's Museum of Pharmacy

Resumo A Escola de Farmácia de Ouro Preto, fundada em 1839, foi a primeira da América Latina desvinculada de uma escola de medicina. No final do século XIX, contou com um acervo de modelos anatômicos franceses dos renomados Deyrolle, Dr. Auzoux e Vasseur-Tramod, muitos fabricados em cera ou papel machê. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo resgatar, identificar, higienizar, restaurar e expor os modelos. De unidades acadêmicas da Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, 17 modelos anatômicos foram resgatados e transferidos para o Museu da Pharmacia, onde receberam o devido tratamento. Os modelos em melhores condições foram expostos no museu formando parte da coleção de ensino do curso de farmácia de Ouro Preto.

Abstract The Ouro Preto School of Pharmacy was founded in 1839 and was the first pharmacy school in Latin America independent from a medical school. At the end of the nineteenth century, it had a collection of French anatomical models made by Deyrolle, Dr. Auzoux, and Vasseur-Tramod, many produced from wax or papier-mâché. This project involved recovering, identifying, cleaning, restoring, and exhibiting seventeen models found in various facilities from Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto. The models in good condition were exhibited in the Museum of Pharmacy (where this work was carried out) as part of the teaching collection for the Ouro Preto pharmacy course.

Learning the Chymical Compromise: Paracelsian and Galenic Medicine in Marburg Disputations on Chymiatria.

The chair of chymiatria created at the University of Marburg was among the earliest academic initiatives aiming to integrate chymistry into the medical curriculum. If its practical applications in pharmacy and its relationship with patronage have been examined by historians, the theoretical part of the chymiatria programme still remains to be explored. In the form of student disputations and dissertations held or presided over by Heinrich Petraeus, a professor of medicine at Marburg and Johannes Hartmann's son-in-law, "chymiatric" essays expounded various medical issues. Centred on pathology, therapy, and physiology, these theoretical explanations proposed a "hermetic-dogmatic" interpretation merging the views of Paracelsus and Galen. This article examines these disputations and their stance concerning the living body, sickness, and treatment, and how they shaped the status of chymistry as an art and a science on the verge of institutionalisation.

Pharmacy in Latvia during the occupation regime of Nazi Germany (1941-1945).

The study covers the period of World War II after shift of occupational powers in Latvia when Soviet occupation was replaced by the occupation regime of Nazi Germany in the summer of 1941 and retained until first half of 1945. Due to this shift gradually Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Belarus were merged into a single administrative area and designated as "Ostland". Soviet officials left the pharmaceutical industry, which they had tried to apply to the communist ideology from June 1940 to June 1941 creating confusion and chaos. The renewed Pharmacy Board of Latvia had to deal with the restoration of supervision and a partial return from the communist to the capitalist regime. The research provides an insight to adaptation and development of the pharmaceutical industry in Latvia during Nazi Germany occupation regime, highlighting as essential indicators the administrative operation of Pharmacy Board of Latvia and its cooperation with German authorities, the availability of medicines, process of reprivatisation of pharmacies and changes in the number of pharmaceutical employees. The research issue raised is topical, since it is this period that reflects the industry's ability to adapt and perform work in fundamentally different and severe circumstances, which include both resource deficits and the transition from one regime to another. The collected evidence shows the efforts to stabilize the pharmaceutical industry in many terms. One example was the attemptions to ensure the rational dispensing of medical products to the pharmacies and hospitals, with the greatest degree of austerity, because the supply and consumption of medication was extremely complex issue throughout the war.

[Biography of Moody Meng].

Moody Meng(1897-1983) was a pioneer of pharmacy in China. He was the main editor of the first Chinese Pharmacopoeia, the first president of the National College of Pharmacy (now China Pharmaceutical University), the first director of Chongqing Union Pharmaceutical Factory during the Anti-Japanese War and the first director of the China National Institute for the Control of Pharmaceutical and Biological Products. He made important contributions in many fields of pharmacy in China.

Nomen Est Omen: Medical and Pharmaceutical Occupations in Slovenian Family Names

The heritage of Slovenian house names and surnames reflects, among others, the former medicine and pharmaceutical occupations, midwifery, and folk medicine practices, and besides that, also health status and illnesses of people. Surnames, which are especially strongly intertwined with family, local and social history, are closely related to folk medicine and magic. Unlike house names (vulgo), which are the usual nicknames for physical and mental characteristics and abilities, surnames denote medical occupations and medicinal folk practice as such. According to the most recent data (as of January 1, 2020) of The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, at least 40 surnames reminiscent former medical or pharmaceutical professions. These newly discovered digital data in open access are precious for the history of medicine because they allow comparing surnames geographically, by frequency, and through the time.

Terapia antibacteriana: origen y evolución en el tiempo / Antibacterial therapy: origin and evolution in the time

Desde siempre, el ser humano buscó una explicación a los fenómenos y una solución a sus males. El instinto fue quien primero guió al hombre para buscar remedios con los que aliviar sus males lamiendo o limpiando sus heridas. Mediante el método de "ensayo-error", el hombre prehistórico fue encontrando plantas y sustancias minerales que resultaban eficaces. En la Edad Media y el Mundo Moderno, la medicina Hippocrático-galénica tuvo, en relación a la terapéutica, a Dioscórides como el gran referente Con el decurso de los años, científicos como Pasteur, Koch, Cantani, Emmerich, Low, Tiberio, sentaron las bases para que más tarde otros como Freudenreich, Domagk, Fleming, Waksman, entre otros, descubrieran y perfeccionaran la amplia gama de antibióticos que hoy conocemos. A pesar de estos avances, en la actualidad se observan múltiples mecanismos de resistencia bacteriana que ponen en peligro la eficacia antibiótica (AU).

The human beings have always looked for an explanation to the phenomena and a solution to his misfortunes. Firstly the instinct was what guided the man to look for remedies to alleviate his ills licking or cleaning his wounds. By means of the "trial-error" method, the prehistoric man was finding plants and mineral substances that were effective. In the Middle Ages and the Modern World, the Hippocratic-galenic medicine took Dioscorides as the great referent in relation to therapeutic. As the years went by, scientist like Pasteur, Koch, Cantani, Emmerich, Low, Tiberio, set the bases for Freudenreich, Domagk, Fleming, Waksman among others to discover and improve the wide range antibiotics known today. In spite of these advances, multiple mechanisms of bacterial resistance putting in danger antibiotic effectiveness are observed today (AU).

Pharmacy in Latvia during the first Soviet occupation (1940-1941).

The first period of the independent state of Latvia lasted from 1918 to 1940. During this period, pharmacy in Latvia had reached a high level of development. The study covers the period after the loss of independence, when the beginning of World War II marked a major crisis in the development of pharmacy in Latvia. The aim of the study was to compile and systematize information available in published and unpublished sources on the impact of the Soviet occupation (1940-1941) on pharmacy in Latvia, which has not been studied before. The main idea of the study was to find evidence that the Soviet occupation decreased the development capacity of Latvian pharmaceutical industry and narrowed its development opportunities. At the same time, the study reflects part of the general political, ideological and economic environment in Latvia over that period. The study is retrospective and descriptive. Materials from Latvian State Historical Archives and the National Archives of Latvia, and publications from the 20th century press of Latvia were used in the study. In one year, the Soviet system attempted to aggressively transform Latvian pharmaceutical industry to match the USSR standards. This meant the destruction of the capitalist system and the free market, as well as the introduction of centralised management. The radical changes were poorly organised and unsuitable candidates were appointed to positions of responsibility. There is evidence that pharmacy in Latvia experienced complete chaos during that period: private enterprises were nationalised, the number of pharmacy professionals decreased, and medical products from abroad were not supplied to the Latvian market. The Latvian population was rescued from total lack of medications by the last major medication purchase from Germany and the Netherlands shortly before the occupation. All the USSR actions in the pharmaceutical industry were coercive. With the occupation of Nazi Germany in the summer of 1941, the Soviet functionaries left the industry. However, in 1945, during the second occupation, the previous procedures were renewed and their results strengthened. It leads to the conclusion that the Soviet political system had an adverse effect on the development of pharmacy in Latvia.

Trade, knowledge and networks: the activities of the Society of Apothecaries and its members in London, c.1670-c.1800.

This article explores the activities of the Society of Apothecaries and its members following the foundation of a laboratory for manufacturing chemical medicines in 1672. In response to political pressures, the guild created an institutional framework for production which in time served its members both functionally and financially and established a physical site within which the endorsement of practical knowledge could take place. Demand from state and institutional customers for drugs produced under corporate oversight affirmed and supported the society's trading role, with chemical and pharmaceutical knowledge utilized to fulfil collective and individual goals. The society benefited from the mercantile interests, political connections and practical expertise of its members, with contributions to its trading activities part of a much wider participation in London's medical, scientific and commercial milieu. Yet, as apothecaries became increasingly engaged in the practice of medicine rather than the preparation and sale of drugs, the society struggled to reconcile the changing priorities of those it represented, and tensions emerged between its corporate and commercial activities.

Teaching History of Pharmacy in U.S. Pharmacy Schools.

Objective. To determine how the standards for teaching pharmacy history were met by U.S. pharmacy schools, whether schools wanted to expand their commitment to pharmacy history, what pedagogical assistance, if any, was desired, and whether elective courses were offered. Methods. There were 133 school deans who were asked to identify the responsible faculty for teaching pharmacy history. A 10-question online survey instrument was designed and emailed to these faculty or the dean if no faculty were identified. Follow-up emails were sent at 2-week intervals. If they were non-responsive after three attempts, then telephone solicitation was attempted. Results. There were 100 schools (75%) that responded. Fifty-three percent were public and 47% were private; with 50% having class sizes of 100 or less, 41% with 101-250, and 9% having over 250. Eighty-six percent of respondents meet the ACPE requirement within a required course. Seventy-two percent devote only one to five hours of instruction to meet the requirement. Sixty-eight percent use no supporting literature, and among those who do, there was no common textbook. Interestingly, 21% wanted more teaching time, and 91% desired pedagogical assistance, varying from a packaged course (26%) to a syllabus with assignments and assessment banks (23%). Conclusion. Since no time or material guidelines were established to fulfill the ACPE pharmacy history educational requirements, these results provide a starting point to judge what is adequate and/or preferred. With the development of teaching guidelines and adoptable teaching materials, the pedagogical solution to this ACPE standard may become more complete and consistent.

Pharmacists among Members of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province.

Based on a profound examination and evaluation of archival materials, the paper reconstructs the lives of eighteen pharmacists - members of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province from the 17th to the 19th century, of which sixteen served as monastic pharmacists. In addition to the identified biographical data (based on archival materials), the Latin summary reports on the life of a particular capuchin on the occasion of his death (the so-called elogia) from the Capuchin Provincial Chronicle (Annales capucinorum) are edited, together with their commented Czech translation. The discovered data allow a deeper insight into the pharmaceutical history of the Czech-Moravian Capuchin Province, where three monastic pharmacies were operated in Brno, Prague in Hradčany and Olomouc, and also a monastic pharmaceutical study was established. The published material also provides some new data on contemporary pharmaceutical practice, which are set in the context of literature. The paper illustrates the transfer of knowledge between the world of secular and monastic pharmacy at the places where future monastic pharmacists received their education (the pharmacies “The White Eagle” in Karlovy Vary, the pharmacy of brothers hospitallers in Prostějov, “The Golden Eagle” in Opava, “The White Unicorn” in the Old Town of Prague). The paper also highlights the intensive involvement of monastic pharmacists in the management of plague epidemics in the years 1680-1713 (often at the cost of their own lives), as well as the above-standard proximity to the patients in monastic hospitals in carrying out routine nursing and pharmacy practice. The paper adds sharper contours to the image of the pharmacist at that time by detailing the life stories of individual pharmacists (e.g., the previous career as a military surgeon and the iconographic circumstances of death, or the career extension in the form of participation in the order meetings in Rome). Analysis of the preserved manuscript Annotationes medicae Fr. Absolonis from the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries not only introduces an interesting pharmaceutical memorabilia, but also illustrates the professional maturation of the last Capuchin pharmacist. In the final part of the paper, the data about twenty-two pharmacists who unsuccessfully tried to join the Capuchin Order are given. It not only demonstrates admission practice in the Capuchin order, in which spiritual interest outweighed the practical, but also bears witness to other pharmaceutical phenomena of the time, such as the fate of the pharmacist from the abolished Jesuit Order or the development of pharmacy in the Carthusian monastery in Valdice.