Ambipolar Heterojunction Sensors: Another Way to Detect Polluting Gases.

Gas sensors based on ambipolar materials offer significant advantages in reducing the size of the analytical system and enhancing its efficiency. Here, bilayer heterojunction devices are constructed using different octafluorinated phthalocyanine complexes, with Zn and Co as metal centers, combined with a lutetium bisphthalocyanine complex (LuPc2). Stable p-type behavior is observed for the ZnF8Pc/LuPc2 device under both electron-donating (NH3) and -oxidizing (NO2 and O3) gaseous species, while the CoF8Pc/LuPc2 device exhibits n-type behavior under reducing gases and p-type behavior under oxidizing gases. The nature of majority of the charge carriers of Co-based devices varies depending on the nature of target gases, displaying an ambipolar behavior. Both heterojunction devices demonstrate stable and observable response toward all three toxic gases in the sub-ppm range. Remarkably, the Co-based device is highly sensitive toward ammonia with a limit of detection (LOD) of 200 ppb, whereas the Zn-based device demonstrates exceptional sensitivity toward oxidizing gases, with excellent LOD values of 4.9 and 0.75 ppb toward NO2 and O3, respectively, which makes it one of the most effective organic heterojunction sensors reported so far for oxidizing gases.

Lutetium Texaphyrin-Celecoxib Conjugate as a Potential Immuno-Photodynamic Therapy Agent.

Immuno-photodynamic therapy (IPDT) has emerged as a new modality for cancer treatment. Novel photosensitizers can help achieve the promise inherent in IPDT, namely, the complete eradication of a tumor without recurrence. We report here a small molecule photosensitizer conjugate, LuCXB. This IPDT agent integrates a celecoxib (cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor) moiety with a near-infrared absorbing lutetium texaphyrin photocatalytic core. In aqueous environments, the two components of LuCXB are self-associated through inferred donor-acceptor interactions. A consequence of this intramolecular association is that upon photoirradiation with 730 nm light, LuCXB produces superoxide radicals (O2-•) via a type I photodynamic pathway; this provides a first line of defense against the tumor while promoting IPDT. For in vivo therapeutic applications, we prepared a CD133-targeting, aptamer-functionalized exosome-based nanophotosensitizer (Ex-apt@LuCXB) designed to target cancer stem cells. Ex-apt@LuCXB was found to display good photosensitivity, acceptable biocompatibility, and robust tumor targetability. Under conditions of photoirradiation, Ex-apt@LuCXB acts to amplify IPDT while exerting a significant antitumor effect in both liver and breast cancer mouse models. The observed therapeutic effects are attributed to a synergistic mechanism that combines antiangiogenesis and photoinduced cancer immunotherapy.

Tailoring Fibroblast-Activation Protein Targeting for Theranostics: A Comparative Preclinical Evaluation of the 68Ga- and 177Lu-Labeled Monomeric and Dimeric Fibroblast-Activation Protein Inhibitors DOTA.SA.FAPi and DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2.

BACKGROUND: FAP radiopharmaceuticals show promise for cancer diagnosis; however, their limited tumor residency hinders treatment. This study compared two FAPi derivatives, DOTA.SA.FAPi and DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2, labeled with gallium-68 and lutetium-177, aiming to determine an optimum combination for creating theranostic pairs. METHODS: The radiotracers were studied for lipophilicity, binding to human serum proteins, and binding to human cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) in vitro, including saturation and internalization/externalization studies. PET/SPECT/CT and biodistribution studies were conducted in PC3 and U87MG xenografts for [68Ga]Ga-DOTA.SA.FAPi and [68Ga]Ga-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2. [177Lu]Lu-DOTA.SA.FAPi and [177Lu]Lu-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2, were evaluated in PC3 xenografts. Biodistribution studies of [68Ga]Ga-DOTA.SA.FAPi were performed in healthy male and female mice. RESULTS: All radiotracers exhibited strong binding to FAP. Their internalization rate was fast while only [177Lu]Lu-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2 was retained longer in CAFs. [68Ga]Ga-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2 and [177Lu]Lu-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2 displayed elevated lipophilicity and affinity for human serum proteins compared to [68Ga]Ga-DOTA.SA.FAPi and [177Lu]Lu-DOTA.SA.FAPi. In vivo studies revealed slower washout of [68Ga]Ga-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2 within 3 h compared to [68Ga]Ga-DOTA.SA.FAPi. The tumor-to-tissue ratios of [68Ga]Ga-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2 versus [68Ga]Ga-DOTA.SA.FAPi did not exhibit any significant differences. [177Lu]Lu-DOTAGA.(SA.FAPi)2 maintained a significant tumor uptake even after 96 h p.i. compared to [177Lu]Lu-DOTA.SA.FAPi. CONCLUSIONS: Dimeric compounds hold promise for therapy, while monomers are better suited for diagnostics. Finding the right combination is essential for effective disease management.

Effect of Ibuprofen as an Albumin Binder on Melanoma-Targeting Properties of 177Lu-Labeled Ibuprofen-Conjugated Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Peptides.

The purpose of this study was to examine how the introduction of ibuprofen (IBU) affected tumor-targeting and biodistribution properties of 177Lu-labeled IBU-conjugated alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone peptides. The IBU was used as an albumin binder and conjugated to the DOTA-Lys moiety without or with a linker to yield DOTA-Lys(IBU)-GG-Nle-CycMSHhex {1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid-Lys(IBU)-Gly-Gly-Nle-c[Asp-His-DPhe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-CONH2}, DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex, DOTA-Lys(Asn-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex, and DOTA-Lys(Dab-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex peptides. Their melanocortin-receptor 1 (MC1R) binding affinities were determined on B16/F10 melanoma cells first. Then the biodistribution of 177Lu-labeled peptides was determined on B16/F10 melanoma-bearing C57 mice at 2 h postinjection to choose the lead peptide for further examination. The full biodistribution and melanoma imaging properties of 177Lu-DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex were further evaluated using B16/F10 melanoma-bearing C57 mice. DOTA-Lys(IBU)-GG-Nle-CycMSHhex, DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex, DOTA-Lys(Asn-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex, and DOTA-Lys(Dab-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex displayed the IC50 values of 1.41 ± 0.37, 1.52 ± 0.08, 0.03 ± 0.01, and 0.58 ± 0.06 nM on B16/F10 melanoma cells, respectively. 177Lu-DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex exhibited the lowest liver and kidney uptake among all four designed 177Lu peptides. Therefore, 177Lu-DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex was further evaluated for its full biodistribution and melanoma imaging properties. The B16/F10 melanoma uptake of 177Lu-DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex was 19.5 ± 3.12, 24.12 ± 3.35, 23.85 ± 2.08, and 10.80 ± 2.89% ID/g at 0.5, 2, 4, and 24 h postinjection, respectively. Moreover, 177Lu-DOTA-Lys(Asp-IBU)-GGNle-CycMSHhex could clearly visualize the B16/F10 melanoma lesions at 2 h postinjection. The conjugation of IBU with or without a linker to GGNle-CycMSHhex affected the MC1R binding affinities of the designed peptides. The charge of the linker played a key role in the liver and kidney uptake of 177Lu-Asp-IBU, 177Lu-Asn-IBU, and 177Lu-Dab-IBU. 177Lu-Asp-IBU exhibited higher tumor/liver and tumor/kidney uptake ratios than those of 177Lu-Asn-IBU and 177Lu-Dab-IBU, underscoring its potential evaluation for melanoma therapy in the future.

68Ga/177Lu-Labeled Bivalent Agents for Targeting Hypoxia and PSMA-Binding in Prostate Cancer.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is an excellent target for cancer detection and therapy. Hypoxia is prevalent in solid tumors, and various nitroimidazole (NI) radioligands can be trapped inside hypoxic cells for diagnosis and therapy. To enhance tumor uptake and retention, we designed bivalent agents (compounds 1-8) incorporating a hypoxia-sensitive NI-moiety and a PSMA-targeting group. Ligands 1-8 were successfully prepared and labeled with 68Ga or 177Lu. Among them, [68Ga]Ga-8 ([68Ga]Ga-AAZTA-NI-PSMA-093) demonstrated significantly higher cellular accumulation under hypoxic conditions than under normoxic conditions, suggesting hypoxia-selective trapping by the introduction of NI group. PET/CT imaging at 60 min postinjection of [68Ga]Ga-8 revealed high tumor uptake (SUVmax: 10.68%ID/mL) in the tumor-bearing mice model. SPECT/CT imaging of [177Lu]Lu-8 at 24 and 48 h postinjection demonstrated excellent accumulation and retention. Preliminary studies indicate that [68Ga]Ga/[177Lu]Lu-8 may be promising bivalent agents targeting hypoxia and PSMA binding for diagnosis and radiotherapy.

Ultrastable PLGA-Coated 177Lu-Microspheres for Radioembolization Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Transarterial radioembolization (TARE) is a highly effective localized radionuclide therapy that has been successfully used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Extensive research has been conducted on the use of radioactive microspheres (MSs) in TARE, and the development of ideal radioactive MSs is crucial for clinical trials and patient treatment. This study presents the development of a radioactive MS for TARE of HCC. These MSs, referred to as 177Lu-MS@PLGA, consist of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) copolymer and radioactive silica MSs, labeled with 177Lu and then coated with PLGA. It has an extremely high level of radiostability. Cellular experiments have shown that it can cause DNA double-strand breaks, leading to cell death. In vivo radiostability of 177Lu-MS@PLGA is demonstrated by microSPECT/CT imaging. In addition, the antitumor study has shown that TARE of 177Lu-MS@PLGA can effectively restrain tumor growth without harmful side effects. Thus, 177Lu-MS@PLGA exhibits significant potential as a radioactive MS for the treatment of HCC.

Imaging and Downstaging Bladder Cancer with the 177Lu-Labeled Bioorthogonal Nanoprobe.

Efforts on bladder cancer treatment have been shifting from extensive surgery to organ preservation in the past decade. To this end, we herein develop a multifunctional nanoagent for bladder cancer downstaging and bladder-preserving therapy by integrating mucosa penetration, reduced off-target effects, and internal irradiation therapy into a nanodrug. Specifically, an iron oxide nanoparticle was used as a carrier that was coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) for facilitating mucosa penetration. Dibenzocyclooctyne (DBCO) was introduced into the HA coating layer to react through bioorthogonal reaction with azide as an artificial receptor of bladder cancer cells, to improve the cellular internalization of the nanoprobe labeled with 177Lu. Through magnetic resonance imaging, the targeted imaging of both nonmuscle-invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) and muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) was realized after intravesical instillation of the multifunctional probe, both NMIBC and MIBC were found downstaged, and the metastasis was inhibited, which demonstrates the potential of the multifunctional nanoprobe for bladder preservation in bladder cancer treatment.

Novel [68Ga/177Lu]Ga/Lu-AZ-093 as PSMA-Targeting Agent for Diagnosis and Radiotherapy.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) overexpressed in prostate cancer cells can serve as a target for imaging and radioligand therapy (RLT). Previously, [68Ga]Ga-P16-093, containing a Ga(III) chelator, N,N'-bis[2-hydroxy-5-(carboxyethyl)benzyl]ethylenediamine-N,N'-diacetic acid (HBED-CC), displayed excellent PSMA-targeting properties and showed a high tumor uptake and retention useful for diagnosis in prostate cancer patients. Recently, [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 has been approved by the U.S. food and drug administration (FDA) for the treatment of prostate cancer patients. Derivatives of PSMA-093 using AAZTA (6-amino-6-methylperhydro-1,4-diazepinetetraacetic acid), as the chelator, were designed as alternative agents forming complexes with both diagnostic and therapeutic radiometals, such as gallium-68 (log K = 22.18) or lutetium-177 (log K = 21.85). The aim of this study is to evaluate AAZTA-Gly-O-(methylcarboxy)-Tyr-Phe-Lys-NH-CO-NH-Glu (designated as AZ-093, 1) leading to a gallium-68/lutetium-177 theranostic pair as potential PSMA targeting agents. Synthesis of the desired precursor, AZ-093, 1, was effectively accomplished. Labeling with either [68Ga]GaCl3 or [177Lu]LuCl3 in a sodium acetate buffer solution (pH 4-5) at 50 °C in 5 to 15 min produced either [68Ga]Ga-1 or [177Lu]Lu-1 with high yields and excellent radiochemical purities. Results of in vitro binding studies, cell uptake, and retention (using PSMA-positive prostate carcinoma cells line, 22Rv1-FOLH1-oe) were comparable to that of [68Ga]Ga-P16-093 and [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617, respectively. Specific cellular uptake was determined with or without the competitive blocking agent (2 µM of "cold" PSMA-11). Cellular binding and internalization showed a time-dependent increase over 2 h at 37 °C in the PSMA-positive cells. The cell uptakes were completely blocked by the "cold" PSMA-11 suggesting that they are competing for the same PSMA binding sites. In the mouse model with implanted PSMA-positive tumor cells, both [68Ga]Ga-1 and [177Lu]Lu-1 displayed excellent uptake and retention in the tumor. Results indicate that [68Ga]Ga/[177Lu]Lu-1 (68Ga]Ga/[177Lu]Lu-AZ-093) is potentially useful as PSMA-targeting agent for both diagnosis and radiotherapy of prostate cancer.

Discovery of Glutamate Carboxypeptidase III Ligands to Compete the Uptake of [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 in Healthy Organs.

Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeted radio ligand therapeutics (RLTs), such as [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 (Pluvicto), have been shown to accumulate in salivary glands and kidneys, potentially leading to undesired side effects. As unwanted accumulation in normal organs may derive from the cross-reactivity of PSMA ligands to glutamate carboxypeptidase III (GCPIII), it may be convenient to block this interaction with GCPIII-selective ligands. Parallel screening of a DNA-encoded chemical library (DEL) against GCPIII and PSMA allowed the identification of GCPIII binders. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies resulted in the identification of nanomolar GCPIII ligands with up to 1000-fold selectivity over PSMA. We studied the ability of GCPIII ligands to counteract the binding of [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 to human salivary glands by autoradiography and could demonstrate a partial radioprotection.

Precise positioning of gamma ray interactions in multiplexed pixelated scintillators using artificial neural networks.

Introduction. The positioning ofγray interactions in positron emission tomography (PET) detectors is commonly made through the evaluation of the Anger logic flood histograms. machine learning techniques, leveraging features extracted from signal waveform, have demonstrated successful applications in addressing various challenges in PET instrumentation.Aim. This paper evaluates the use of artificial neural networks (NN) forγray interaction positioning in pixelated scintillators coupled to a multiplexed array of silicon photomultipliers (SiPM).Methods. An array of 16 Cerium doped Lutetium-based (LYSO) crystal pixels (cross-section 2 × 2 mm2) coupled to 16 SiPM (S13360-1350) were used for the experimental setup. Data from each of the 16 LYSO pixels was recorded, a total of 160000 events. The detectors were irradiated by 511 keV annihilationγrays from a Sodium-22 (22Na) source. Another LYSO crystal was used for electronic collimation. Features extracted from the signal waveform were used to train the model. Two models were tested: i) single multiple-class neural network (mcNN), with 16 possible outputs followed by a softmax and ii) 16 binary classification neural networks (bNN), each one specialized in identifying events occurred in each position.Results. Both NN models showed a mean positioning accuracy above 85% on the evaluation dataset, although the mcNN is faster to train.DiscussionThe method's accuracy is affected by the introduction of misclassified events that interacted in the neighbour's crystals and were misclassified during the dataset acquisition. Electronic collimation reduces this effect, however results could be improved using a more complex acquisition setup, such as a light-sharing configuration.ConclusionsThe methods comparison showed that mcNN and bNN can surpass the Anger logic, showing the feasibility of using these models in positioning procedures of future multiplexed detector systems in a linear configuration.

Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen Targeted StarPEG Nanocarrier for Imaging and Therapy of Prostate Cancer.

The tumor uptake of large non-targeted nanocarriers primarily occurs through passive extravasation, known as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Prior studies demonstrated improved tumor uptake and retention of 4-arm 40 kDa star polyethylene glycol (StarPEG) polymers for cancer imaging by adding prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeting small molecule ligands. To test PSMA-targeted delivery and therapeutic efficacy, StarPEG nanodrugs with/without three copies of PSMA-targeting ligands, ACUPA, are designed and synthesized. For single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging and therapy, each nanocarrier is labeled with 177Lu using DOTA radiometal chelator. The radiolabeled nanodrugs, [177Lu]PEG-(DOTA)1 and [177Lu]PEG-(DOTA)1(ACUPA)3, are evaluated in vitro and in vivo using PSMA+ PC3-Pip and/or PSMA- PC3-Flu cell lines, subcutaneous xenografts and disseminated metastatic models. The nanocarriers are efficiently radiolabeled with 177Lu with molar activities 10.8-15.8 MBq/nmol. Besides excellent in vitro PSMA binding affinity (kD = 51.7 nM), the targeted nanocarrier, [177Lu]PEG-(DOTA)1(ACUPA)3, demonstrated excellent in vivo SPECT imaging contrast with 21.3% ID/g PC3-Pip tumors uptake at 192 h. Single doses of 18.5 MBq [177Lu]PEG-(DOTA)1(ACUPA)3 showed complete resolution of the PC3-Pip xenografts observed up to 138 days. Along with PSMA-targeted excellent imaging contrast, these results demonstrated high treatment efficacy of [177Lu]PEG-(DOTA)1(ACUPA)3 for prostate cancer, with potential for clinical translation.

Active and passive dosimetry for beta-emitting radiopharmaceutical therapy agents in a custom SPECT/CT compatible phantom.

Objective. This work introduces a novel approach to performing active and passive dosimetry for beta-emitting radionuclides in solution using common dosimeters. The measurements are compared to absorbed dose to water (Dw) estimates from Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. We present a method for obtaining absorbed dose to water, measured with dosimeters, from beta-emitting radiopharmaceutical agents using a custom SPECT/CT compatible phantom for validation of Monte Carlo based absorbed dose to water estimates.Approach. A cylindrical, acrylic SPECT/CT compatible phantom capable of housing an IBA EFD diode, Exradin A20-375 parallel plate ion chamber, unlaminated EBT3 film, and thin TLD100 microcubes was constructed for the purpose of measuring absorbed dose to water from solutions of common beta-emitting radiopharmaceutical therapy agents. The phantom is equipped with removable detector inserts that allow for multiple configurations and is designed to be used for validation of image-based absorbed dose estimates with detector measurements. Two experiments with131I and one experiment with177Lu were conducted over extended measurement intervals with starting activities of approximately 150-350 MBq. Measurement data was compared to Monte Carlo simulations using the egs_chamber user code in EGSnrc 2019.Main results. Agreement withink= 1 uncertainty between measured and MC predictedDwwas observed for all dosimeters, except the A20-375 ion chamber during the second131I experiment. Despite the agreement, the measured values were generally lower than predicted values by 5%-15%. The uncertainties atk = 1 remain large (5%-30% depending on the dosimeter) relative to other forms of radiation therapy.Significance. Despite high uncertainties, the overall agreement between measured and simulated absorbed doses is promising for the use of dosimeter-based RPT measurements in the validation of MC predictedDw.

Prompt gamma timing for proton range verification with TlBr and TlCl as pure Cherenkov emitters.

Objective. Prompt gamma timing (PGT) uses the detection time of prompt gammas emitted along the range of protons in proton radiotherapy to verify the position of the Bragg peak (BP). Cherenkov detectors offer the possibility of enhanced signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) due to the inherent physics of Cherenkov emission which enhances detection of high energy prompt gamma rays relative to other induced uncorrelated signals. In this work, the PGT technique was applied to 3 semiconductor material slabs that emit only Cherenkov light for use in a full scale system: a 3 × 3 × 20 mm3TlBr, a 12 × 12 × 12 mm3TlBr, and a 5 × 5 × 5 mm3TlCl.Approach. A polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) target was exposed to a 67.5 MeV, 0.5 nA proton beam and shifted in 3 mm increments at the Crocker nuclear laboratory (CNL) in Davis, CA, USA. A fast plastic scintillator coupled to a photomultiplier tube (PMT) provided the start reference for the proton time of flight. Time of flight (TOF) distributions were generated using this reference and the gamma-ray timestamp in the Cherenkov detector.Main results. The SNR of the proton correlated peaks relative to the background was 20, 29, and 30 for each of the three samples, respectively. The upper limit of the position resolutions with the TlCl sample were 2 mm, 3 mm, and 5 mm for 30k, 10k, and 5k detected events, respectively. The time distribution of events with respect to the reference reproduced with clarity the periodicity of the beam, implying a very high SNR of the Cherenkov crystals to detect prompt gammas. Background presence from the neutron-induced continuum, prompt gammas from deuterium, or positron activation were not observed. Material choice and crystal dimensions did not seem to affect significantly the outcome of the results.Significance. These results show the high SNR of the pure Cherenkov emitters TlBr and TlCl for the detection of prompt gammas in a proton beam with current of clinical significance and their potential for verifying the proton range. The accuracy in determining shifts of the BP was highly dependent on the number of events acquired, therefore, the performance of these detectors are expected to vary with different beam conditions such as current, pulse repetition, and proton bunch width.

Determination of lutetium density in LYSO crystals: methodology and PET detector applications.

Objective. Lutetium yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) scintillation crystals are used in positron emission tomography (PET) due to their high gamma attenuation, fair energy resolution, and fast scintillation decay time. The enduring presence of the176Lu isotope, characterized by a half-life of 37.9 billion years, imparts a consistent radiation background (BG) profile that depends on the geometry and composition attributes of the LYSO crystals.Approach. In this work, we proposed a methodology for estimating the composition of LYSO crystals in cases where the exact Lutetium composition remains unknown. The connection between BG spectrum intensity and intrinsic radioactivity enables precise estimation of Lutetium density in LYSO crystal samples. This methodology was initially applied to a well-characterized LYSO crystal sample, yielding results closely aligned with the known composition. The composition estimation approach was extended to several samples of undisclosed LYSO crystals, encompassing single crystal and crystal array configurations. Furthermore, we model the background spectrum observed in the LYSO-based detector and validate the observed spectra via simulations.Main results. The estimated Lutetium composition exhibited adequate consistency across different samples of the same LYSO material, with variations of less than 1%. The result of the proposed approach coupled with the simulation successfully models the background radiation spectra in various LYSO-based detector geometries.Significance. The implications of this work extend to the predictive assessment of system behaviors and the autonomous configuration parameters governing LYSO-based detectors.

Low cost, high temporal resolution optical fiber-based γ-photon sensor for real-time pre-clinical evaluation of cancer-targeting radiopharmaceuticals.

Cancer radiopharmaceutical therapies (RPTs) have demonstrated great promise in the treatment of neuroendocrine and prostate cancer, giving hope to late-stage metastatic cancer patients with currently very few treatment options. These therapies have sparked a large amount of interest in pre-clinical research due to their ability to target metastatic disease, with many research efforts focused towards developing and evaluating targeted RPTs for different cancer types in in vivo models. Here we describe a method for monitoring real-time in vivo binding kinetics for the pre-clinical evaluation of cancer RPTs. Recognizing the significant heterogeneity in biodistribution of RPTs among even genetically identical animal models, this approach offers long-term monitoring of the same in vivo organism without euthanasia in contrast to ex vivo tissue dosimetry, while providing high temporal resolution with a low-cost, easily assembled platform, that is not present in small-animal SPECT/CTs. The method utilizes the developed optical fiber-based γ-photon biosensor, characterized to have a wide linear dynamic range with Lutetium-177 (177Lu) activity (0.5-500 µCi/mL), a common radioisotope used in cancer RPT. The probe's ability to track in vivo uptake relative to SPECT/CT and ex vivo dosimetry techniques was verified by administering 177Lu-PSMA-617 to mouse models bearing human prostate cancer tumors (PC3-PIP, PC3-flu). With this method for monitoring RPT uptake, it is possible to evaluate changes in tissue uptake at temporal resolutions <1 min to determine RPT biodistribution in pre-clinical models and better understand dose relationships with tumor ablation, toxicity, and recurrence when attempting to move therapies towards clinical trial validation.

Synthesis of 177Lu-Labeled, Somatostatin-2 Receptor-Targeted Metalla-Assemblies: Challenges in the Design of Supramolecular Radiotherapeutics.

Self-assembled supramolecular coordination complexes (SCCs) hold promise for biomedical applications in cancer therapy, although their potential in the field of nuclear medicine is still substantially unexplored. Therefore, in this study an exo-functionalized cationic [Pd2L2]4+ metallacycle (L = 3,5-bis(3-ethynylpyridine)phenyl), targeted to the somatostatin-2 receptor (sst2R) and featuring the DOTA chelator (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid) in order to bind the ß-- and γ-emitter lutetium-177, was synthesized by self-assembly following ligand synthesis via standard solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS). This metallacycle was then characterized by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and 1H and 1H-DOSY NMR (DOSY = diffusion-ordered spectroscopy). A procedure for the radiolabeling of the metallacycle with 177Lu was also optimized. The resulting [nat/177Lu]Lu-DOTA-metallacycle, termed [nat/177Lu]Lu-Cy, was evaluated concerning its stability and in vitro properties. The compound was more lipophilic compared to the reference [177Lu]Lu-DOTA-TATE (logPOct/H2O = -0.85 ± 0.10 versus -3.67 ± 0.04, respectively). While [natLu]Lu-Cy revealed low stability in a DMEM/F12 GlutaMax medium, it demonstrated good stability in other aqueous media as well as in DMSO. A high sst2R binding affinity (expressed as IC50) was determined in CHOsst2 cells (Chinese hamster ovary cells that were stably transfected with human sst2R). Moreover, the metallacycle exhibited high human serum albumin binding, as assessed by high-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC), and moderate stability in human serum compared to [177Lu]Lu-DOTA-TATE (TATE = (Tyr3)-octreotate). In order to improve stability, a heteroleptic approach was used to develop a less sterically hindered cage-like SCC that is potentially endowed with host-guest chemistry capability, which has been preliminarily characterized by RP-HPLC and ESI-MS. Overall, our initial results encourage future studies on sst2R-directed SCCs and have led to new insights into the chemistry of ss2R-directed SCCs for radiopharmaceutical applications.

Albumin-Binding and Conventional PSMA Ligands in Combination with 161Tb: Biodistribution, Dosimetry, and Preclinical Therapy.

The favorable decay characteristics of 161Tb attracted the interest of clinicians in using this novel radionuclide for radioligand therapy (RLT). 161Tb decays with a similar half-life to 177Lu, but beyond the emission of ß--particles and γ-rays, 161Tb also emits conversion and Auger electrons, which may be particularly effective to eliminate micrometastases. The aim of this study was to compare the dosimetry and therapeutic efficacy of 161Tb and 177Lu in tumor-bearing mice using SibuDAB and PSMA-I&T, which differ in their blood residence time and tumor uptake. Methods: [161Tb]Tb-SibuDAB and [161Tb]Tb-PSMA-I&T were evaluated in vitro and investigated in biodistribution, imaging, and therapy studies using PC-3 PIP tumor-bearing mice. The 177Lu-labeled counterparts served for dose calculations and comparison of therapeutic efficacy. The tolerability of RLT in mice was monitored on the basis of body mass, blood plasma parameters, blood cell counts, and the histology of relevant organs and tissues. Results: The prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeting radioligands, irrespective of whether labeled with 161Tb or 177Lu, showed similar in vitro data and comparable tissue distribution profiles. As a result of the albumin-binding properties, [161Tb]Tb/[177Lu]Lu-SibuDAB had an enhanced blood residence time and higher tumor uptake (62%-69% injected activity per gram at 24 h after injection) than [161Tb]Tb/[177Lu]Lu-PSMA-I&T (30%-35% injected activity per gram at 24 h after injection). [161Tb]Tb-SibuDAB inhibited tumor growth more effectively than [161Tb]Tb-PSMA-I&T, as can be ascribed to its 4-fold increased absorbed tumor dose. At any of the applied activities, the 161Tb-based radioligands were therapeutically more effective than their 177Lu-labeled counterparts, as agreed with the approximately 40% increased tumor dose of 161Tb compared with that of 177Lu. Under the given experimental conditions, no obvious adverse events were observed. Conclusion: The data of this study indicate the promising potential of 161Tb in combination with SibuDAB for RLT of prostate cancer. Future clinical studies using 161Tb-based RLT will shed light on a potential clinical benefit of 161Tb over 177Lu.

Preclinical Characterization of the 177Lu-Labeled Prostate Stem Cell Antigen (PSCA)-Specific Monoclonal Antibody 7F5.

Prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is an excellent target for imaging and treatment of prostate carcinoma (PCa). Unfortunately, not all PCa cells express PSMA. Therefore, alternative theranostic targets are required. The membrane protein prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) is highly overexpressed in most primary prostate carcinoma (PCa) cells and in metastatic and hormone refractory tumor cells. Moreover, PSCA expression positively correlates with tumor progression. Therefore, it represents a potential alternative theranostic target suitable for imaging and/or radioimmunotherapy. In order to support this working hypothesis, we conjugated our previously described anti-PSCA monoclonal antibody (mAb) 7F5 with the bifunctional chelator CHX-A″-DTPA and subsequently radiolabeled it with the theranostic radionuclide 177Lu. The resulting radiolabeled mAb ([177Lu]Lu-CHX-A″-DTPA-7F5) was characterized both in vitro and in vivo. It showed a high radiochemical purity (>95%) and stability. The labelling did not affect its binding capability. Biodistribution studies showed a high specific tumor uptake compared to most non-targeted tissues in mice bearing PSCA-positive tumors. Accordingly, SPECT/CT images revealed a high tumor-to-background ratios from 16 h to 7 days after administration of [177Lu]Lu-CHX-A″-DTPA-7F5. Consequently, [177Lu]Lu-CHX-A″-DTPA-7F5 represents a promising candidate for imaging and in the future also for radioimmunotherapy.

Interleaved signal multiplexing readout in depth encoding Prism-PET detectors.

BACKGROUND: Given the large number of readout pixels in clinical positron emission tomography (PET) scanners, signal multiplexing is an indispensable feature to reduce scanner complexity, power consumption, heat output, and cost. PURPOSE: In this paper, we introduce interleaved multiplexing (iMux) scheme that utilizes the characteristic light-sharing pattern of depth-encoding Prism-PET detector modules with single-ended readout. METHODS: In the iMux readout, four anodes from every other silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) pixels across rows and columns, which overlap with four distinct light guides, are connected to the same application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) channel. The 4-to-1 coupled Prism-PET detector module was used which consisted of a 16 ×  16 array of 1.5 × 1.5 × 20 mm3 lutetium yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) scintillator crystals coupled to an 8 × 8 array with 3 ×  3 mm2 SiPM pixels. A deep learning-based demultiplexing model was investigated to recover the encoded energy signals. Two different experiments were performed with non-multiplexed and multiplexed readouts to evaluate the spatial, depth of interaction (DOI), and timing resolutions of our proposed iMux scheme. RESULTS: The measured flood histograms, using the decoded energy signals from our deep learning-based demultiplexing architecture, achieved perfect crystal identification of events with negligible decoding error. The average energy, DOI, and timing resolutions were 9.6 ± 1.5%, 2.9 ± 0.9 mm, and 266 ± 19 ps for non-multiplexed readout and 10.3 ± 1.6%, 2.8 ± 0.8 mm, and 311 ± 28 ps for multiplexed readout, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our proposed iMux scheme improves on the already cost-effective and high-resolution Prism-PET detector module and provides 16-to-1 crystal-to-readout multiplexing without appreciable performance degradation. Also, only four SiPM pixels are shorted together in the 8 ×  8 array to achieve 4-to-1 pixel-to-readout multiplexing, resulting in lower capacitance per multiplexed channel.

A CNN-based four-layer DOI encoding detector using LYSO and BGO scintillators for small animal PET imaging.

Objective. We propose a novel four-layer depth-of-interaction (DOI) encoding phoswich detector using lutetium-yttrium oxyothosilicate (LYSO) and bismuth germanate (BGO) scintillator crystal arrays for high sensitivity and high spatial resolution small animal PET imaging.Approach. The detector was comprised of a stack of four alternating LYSO and BGO scintillator crystal arrays coupled to an 8 × 8 multi-pixel photon counter (MPPC) array and read out by a PETsys TOFPET2 application specific integrated circuit. The four layers from the top (gamma ray entrance) to the bottom (facing the MPPC) consisted of a 24 × 24 array of 0.99 × 0.99 × 6 mm3LYSO crystals, a 24 × 24 array of 0.99 × 0.99 × 6 mm3BGO crystals, a 16 × 16 array of 1.53 × 1.53 × 6 mm3LYSO crystals and a 16 × 16 array of 1.53 × 1.53 × 6 mm3BGO crystals.Main results. Events that occurred in the LYSO and BGO layers were first separated by measuring the pulse energy (integrated charge) and duration (time over threshold (ToT)) from the scintillation pulses. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) were then used to distinguish between the top and lower LYSO layers and between the upper and bottom BGO layers. Measurements with the prototype detector showed that our proposed method successfully identified events from all four layers. The CNN models achieved a classification accuracy of 91% for distinguishing the two LYSO layers and 81% for distinguishing the two BGO layers. The measured average energy resolution was 13.1% ± 1.7% for the top LYSO layer, 34.0% ± 6.3% for the upper BGO layer, 12.3% ± 1.3% for the lower LYSO layer, and 33.9% ± 6.9% for the bottom BGO layer. The timing resolution between each individual layer (from the top to the bottom) and a single crystal reference detector was 350 ps, 2.8 ns, 328 ps, and 2.1 ns respectively.Significance. In conclusion, the proposed four-layer DOI encoding detector achieved high performance and is an attractive choice for next-generation high sensitivity and high spatial resolution small animal positron emission tomography systems.