Occurrence patterns of sympatric forest wallabies: assessing the influence of structural habitat attributes on the coexistence of Thylogale thetis and T. stigmatica.

Background: We studied the occurrence of two sympatric wallabies, the red-necked pademelon (Thylogale thetis) and the red-legged pademelon (T. stigmatica) in northeastern New South Wales, Australia in relation to structural habitat attributes. At our study site, both species inhabit closed forest environments and have overlapping distributions, but T. thetis leaves the forest at night to graze adjacent grassy forest edges whereas T. stigmatica remains within the forest and browses forest vegetation. The objectives of the study were to investigate how structural attributes of two forest types, wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest, relate to the fine-scale occurrence of these two wallaby species within the forested environment. Methods: We gathered occurrence data from 48 camera trap stations divided equally between rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest. At each camera point, we also measured a range of structural habitat attributes to determine habitat affiliations for the two Thylogale species. Principal component analyses were used to describe major trends in habitat, and generalised linear models were used to describe the efficacy of the variables in predicting habitat occurrence of each species. Results: The number of occurrences of Thylogale thetis was significantly greater than occurrences of T. stigmatica, which was driven by significantly greater occurrences of T. thetis in wet sclerophyll forest. There was both spatial and temporal partitioning between the two species; there was a significant difference in the occurrences of the two species at individual cameras and T. stigmatica had a different activity schedule than T. thetis in wet sclerophyll forest, where the latter reached its greatest rate of occurrence. At a finer (camera station) scale, occurrences of T. thetis increased with proximity to roads and grassy edges and at sites that were less rocky and less steep. T. stigmatica occurrence increased in the presence of rainforest elements like vines, palms and ferns, more ground-level cover and tree-fall gaps and at sites with fewer emergent eucalypts. Conclusion: Our findings have implications for managing these pademelons and their habitats. T. thetis is a common species that was encountered more often than T. stigmatica, and it responded positively to human disturbance like roadsides and grassy edges, presumably because these areas provided good grazing opportunities. By comparison, T. stigmatica is a threatened species, and it responded to natural disturbance like tree-fall gaps where lateral cover was greater, and where rainforest food plants may be more abundant. Our results suggest, therefore, that conservation of the threatened T. stigmatica requires the preservation of intact rainforest.

Finite element analysis of kangaroo astragali: A new angle on the ankle.

Using finite element analysis on the astragali of five macropodine kangaroos (extant and extinct hoppers) and three sthenurine kangaroos (extinct proposed bipedal striders) we investigate how the stresses experienced by the ankle in similarly sized kangaroos of different hypothesized/known locomotor strategy compare under different simulation scenarios, intended to represent the moment of midstance at different gaits. These tests showed a clear difference between the performance of sthenurines and macropodines with the former group experiencing lower stress in simulated bipedal strides in all species compared with hopping simulations, supporting the hypothesis that sthenurines may have utilized this gait. The Pleistocene macropodine Protemnodon also performed differently from all other species studied, showing high stresses in all simulations except for bounding. This may support the hypothesis of Protemnodon being a quadrupedal bounder.

Functional interactions between coat structure and colour in the determination of solar heat load on arid living kangaroos in summer: balancing crypsis and thermoregulation.

Interactions of solar radiation with mammal fur are complex. Reflection of radiation in the visible spectrum provides colour that has various roles, including sexual display and crypsis, i.e., camouflage. Radiation that is absorbed by a fur coat is converted to heat, a proportion of which impacts on the skin. Not all absorption occurs at the coat surface, and some radiation penetrates the coat before being absorbed, particularly in lighter coats. In studies on this phenomenon in kangaroos, we found that two arid zone species with the thinnest coats had similar effective heat load, despite markedly different solar reflectances. These kangaroos were Red Kangaroos (Osphranter rufus) and Western Grey Kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus).Here we examine the connections between heat flow patterns associated with solar radiation, and the physical structure of these coats. Also noted are the impacts of changing wind speed. The modulation of solar radiation and resultant heat flows in these coats were measured at wind speeds from 1 to 10 m s-1 by mounting them on a heat flux transducer/temperature-controlled plate apparatus in a wind tunnel. A lamp with a spectrum like solar radiation was used as a proxy for the sun. The integrated reflectance across the solar spectrum was higher in the red kangaroos (40 ± 2%) than in the grey kangaroos (28 ± 1%). Fur depth and insulation were not different between the two species, but differences occurred in fibre structure, notably in fibre length, fibre density and fibre shape. Patterns of heat flux within the species' coats occurred despite no overall difference in effective solar heat load. We consider that an overarching need for crypsis, particularly for the more open desert-adapted red kangaroo, has led to the complex adaptations that retard the penetrance of solar radiation into its more reflective fur.

Tendon biomechanical properties are altered by storage duration but not freeze-thaw temperatures or cycles.

Tendon allograft and xenograft processing often involves one or more steps of freezing and thawing. As failure strength is an important graft consideration, this study aimed to evaluate effects on failure properties when varying freeze-thaw conditions. Kangaroo tendons, a potential xenograft source, were used to evaluate changes in ultimate tensile strength (UTS), failure strain and elastic modulus after exposure to different freezer-storage temperatures (-20°C vs. -80°C), storage durations (1, 3, 6, 9, or 12 months), number of freeze-thaw cycles (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 10), or freeze-thaw temperature ranges (including freezing in liquid nitrogen to thawing at 37°C). Tendons stored for 6 or more months had significantly increased UTS and elastic modulus compared with 1 or 3 months of storage. This increase occurred irrespective of the freezing temperature (-20°C vs. -80°C) or the number of freeze-thaw cycles (1 vs. 10). In contrast, UTS, failure strain and the elastic modulus were no different between storage temperatures, number of freeze-thaw cycles and multiple freeze-thaw cycles across a range of freeze and thaw temperatures. Common freeze-thaw protocols did not negatively affect failure properties, providing flexibility for graft testing, storage, transportation and decellularisation procedures. However, the change in properties with the overall storage duration has implications for assessing the consistent performance of grafts stored for short versus extended periods of time (<6 months vs. >6 months), and the interpretation of data obtained from tissues of varying or unknown storage durations.

Macropod Pediatrics.

Macropods belong to the marsupial family Macropodidae, which includes animals such as kangaroos and wallabies. Macropod offspring are highly altricial at birth and require specialized care and environmental conditions for healthy development. The care and management of pediatric macropods poses a challenge due to the unique physiology and reproductive strategy of macropods. In order to successfully work with pediatric macropods, clinical veterinarians should have knowledge of species-specific husbandry, normal postnatal development, and common medical conditions/treatments. With limited information available on macropod pediatric medicine, further research is warranted to improve the care and management of these animals in human care.

Post-weaning survival in kangaroos is high and constant until senescence: Implications for population dynamics.

Large herbivores typically have consistently high prime-aged adult survival and lower, more variable, juvenile, and senescent survival. Many kangaroo populations undergo greater fluctuations in density compared with other large herbivores, but age- and sex-specific survival of kangaroos and their response to environmental variation remain poorly estimated. We used long-term capture-mark-recapture data on 920 individuals to investigate the survival component of eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) population dynamics. Forage availability and population density were monitored quarterly and included as predictors of survival in Bayesian Cormack-Jolly-Seber models. Annual survival probabilities were estimated for five age classes: 0 years (juveniles), 1-2 years (subadults), 3-6 years (prime-aged adults), 7-9 years (presenescent adults), and ≥10 years (senescent adults). Survival of juveniles varied widely during our 12-year study, ranging from 0.07 to 0.90 for females and 0.05-0.92 for males. Subadult survival was 0.80-0.93 for females and 0.75-0.85 for males, while that of prime-aged adults was ≥0.94 for females and ≥0.83 for males, despite large fluctuations in forage and density. The survival of presenescent adults spanned 0.86-0.93 for females and 0.60-0.86 for males. Senescent survival was variable, at 0.49-0.90 for females and 0.49-0.80 for males. Male survival was significantly lower than female survival in prime-aged and presenescent adults, but not in other age classes. Although most of the models supported by Watanabe-Akaike Information Criterion selection included at least one environmental covariate, none of these covariates individually had a discernible effect on survival. Temporal variability in overall survival appeared mostly due to changes in the survival of juvenile and senescent kangaroos. Kangaroo survival patterns are similar to those of ungulates, suggesting a strong role of sex-age structure on population dynamics.

Balancing the scales: Preliminary investigation of total energy expenditure and daily metabolizable energy intake in Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei).

Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) is an endangered arboreal marsupial native to Papua New Guinea. Detailed field studies of its behavior and ecology are scarce due largely to its occupation of remote cloud forests and cryptic nature. Although this species has been in human care since the 1950s, much of its biology is still unknown. The current ex situ population is not sustainable due to health and reproductive problems, believed to stem largely from issues with diet and obesity. To better assess potential discrepancies between energy requirements and energy intake, we sought to 1) quantify total energy expenditure (TEE) of two zoo-housed Matschie's tree kangaroos (body mass = 9.0-9.7 kg) on a diet composed largely of leafy browse; 2) quantify food and macronutrient intake, apparent dry matter macronutrient digestibility, and metabolizable energy (ME) intake over a 14-month period; and 3) test for seasonal changes in ME intake due to seasonal differences in the varieties of leafy browse offered. Using the doubly labeled water method, we determined TEE for the female (288 kcal day -1) and male (411 kcal day -1). Resulting mean TEE was well below the expected value for marsupials and macropods (i.e., ~60% of the expected value based on body mass). The mean calculated ME intakes for the female and male were 307 kcal day-1 and 454 kcal day-1, respectively. There were significant seasonal differences in ME intakes, driven by reduced intake in the autumn. These results demonstrate that Matschie's tree kangaroos can be maintained at healthy body weights and conditions on fiber-rich and browse-heavy diets. Our findings contribute important insights into tree kangaroo energetics and physiology and can be applied to help reformulate the diet of Matschie's tree kangaroos at captive facilities to improve population health and sustainability.

Scaling at different ontogenetic stages: Gastrointestinal tract contents of a marsupial foregut fermenter, the western grey kangaroo Macropus fuliginosus melanops.

Prominent ontogenetic changes of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) should occur in mammals whose neonatal diet of milk differs from that of adults, and especially in herbivores (as vegetation is particularly distinct from milk), and even more so in foregut fermenters, whose forestomach only becomes functionally relevant with vegetation intake. Due to the protracted lactation in marsupials, ontogenetic differences can be particularly well investigated in this group. Here, we report body mass (BM) scaling relationships of wet GIT content mass in 28 in-pouch young (50 g to 3 kg) and 15 adult (16-70 kg) western grey kangaroos Macropus fuliginosus melanops. Apart from the small intestinal contents, in-pouch young and adults did not differ in the scaling exponents ('slope' in log-log plots) but did differ in the scaling factor ('intercept'), with an implied substantial increase in wet GIT content mass during the out-of-pouch juvenile period. In contrast to forestomach contents, caecum contents were elevated in juveniles still in the pouch, suggestive of fermentative digestion of milk and intestinal secretion residues, particularly in the caecum. The substantial increase in GIT contents (from less than 1 to 10-20% of BM) was associated mainly with the increase in forestomach contents (from 25 to 80% of total GIT contents) and a concomitant decrease in small intestine contents (from 50 to 8%), emphasizing the shifting relevance of auto-enzymatic and allo-enzymatic (microbial) digestion. There was a concomitant increase in the contents-to-tissue ratio of the fermentation chambers (forestomach and caecum), but this ratio generally did not change for the small intestine. Our study not only documents significant ontogenetic changes in digestive morpho-physiology, but also exemplifies the usefulness of intraspecific allometric analyses for quantifying these changes.

Intra-skeletal vascular density in a bipedal hopping macropod with implications for analyses of rib histology.

Human ribs are thought to be less affected by mechanical strain at the microscopic level than limb bones, implying that rib remodelling better reflects bone physiological homeostasis. Here, we test the hypothesis that rib tissue will be well vascularized and thus enhance susceptibility to metabolic influence. An intra-skeletal comparison of bone vascular canal density was conducted using a macropod animal model adapted to bipedal habitual hopping. The right humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula, a mid-thoracic and upper-thoracic rib of an eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) were sectioned at the midshaft, from which histological sections were prepared. Bone vascularity from a maximum of 12 mm2 of sub-periosteal parallel-fibred and lamellar bone was recorded, resulting in a total of 2047 counted vessels. Vascular canal density data were corrected by cortical width, maximum length, and midshaft circumference robusticity indices computed for each bone. The fibula consistently had the highest vascular canal density, even when corrected for maximum length, cortical width and midshaft circumference robusticities. This was followed by the mid- and upper-thoracic ribs. Vascularity differences between bones were relatively consistent whether vascular canal density was controlled for by cortical width or midshaft circumference robusticities. Vascular canal density and robusticity indices were also positively and negatively correlated (p < 0.05). Results confirm that the ribs are well vascularized, which facilitates bone metabolic processes such as remodelling, but the fibula also appears to be a well vascularized bone. Future research investigating human bone metabolism will benefit from examining thoracic rib or fibula samples.

Functional morphology of the ankle extensor muscle-tendon units in the springhare Pedetes capensis shows convergent evolution with macropods for bipedal hopping locomotion.

This study assesses the functional morphology of the ankle extensor muscle-tendon units of the springhare Pedetes capensis, an African bipedal hopping rodent, to test for convergent evolution with the Australian bipedal hopping macropods. We dissect and measure the gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris, and flexor digitorum longus in 10 adult springhares and compare them against similar-sized macropods using phylogenetically informed scaling analyses. We show that springhares align reasonably well with macropod predictions, being statistically indistinguishable with respect to the ankle extensor mean weighted muscle moment arm (1.63 vs. 1.65 cm, respectively), total muscle mass (41.1 vs. 29.2 g), total muscle physiological cross-sectional area (22.9 vs. 19.3 cm2 ), mean peak tendon stress (26.2 vs. 35.2 MPa), mean tendon safety factor (4.7 vs. 3.6), and total tendon strain energy return capacity (1.81 vs. 1.82 J). However, total tendon cross-sectional area is significantly larger in springhares than predicted for a similar-sized macropod (0.26 vs. 0.17 cm2 , respectively), primarily due to a greater plantaris tendon thickness (0.084 vs. 0.048 cm2 ), and secondarily because the soleus muscle-tendon unit is present in springhares but is vestigial in macropods. The overall similarities between springhares and macropods indicate that evolution has favored comparable lower hindlimb body plans for bipedal hopping locomotion in the two groups of mammals that last shared a common ancestor ~160 million years ago. The springhare's relatively thick plantaris tendon may facilitate rapid transfer of force from muscle to skeleton, enabling fast and accelerative hopping, which could help to outpace and outmaneuver predators.

Composition of browses consumed by Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) sampled from home ranges in Papua New Guinea.

Twenty-six samples (n = 24 spp.) of foods eaten, including ferns, shrubs, vines, orchids, herbaceous plants, and tree leaves, were collected from the Yopno, Uruwa, and Som Conservation Area at approximately 1,800 m altitude on the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea (PNG). Samples were weighed fresh in the field and transported to the Lae National Herbarium in PNG for drying and confirmed identification, before transporting to the US for analysis of primary nutrient composition and minerals. Water content averaged 76 ± 10% (mean ± standard deviation); on a dry matter (DM) basis, foods averaged moderate protein (11 ± 5%), and soluble carbohydrate (27 ± 8%) content, along with exceptionally low starch (1 ± 1%) and crude fat (3 ± 2%) values, and moderate to high values in fiber fractions (neutral detergent fiber 52 ± 13%, acid detergent fiber 39 ± 10%, lignin 15 ± 6%). Calculated metabolizable energy content of native forages averaged 1.9 ± 0.3 Mcal/kg DM (ruminant model). Macromineral concentrations (DM basis) were not exceptional (calcium 1.1 ± 1.0%, phosphorus 0.2 ± 0.1%, magnesium 0.3 ± 0.2%, potassium 1.8 ± 0.9%, sodium 0.02 ± 0.02%), and select trace minerals were within anticipated ranges for herbivores (copper 12 ± 13 mg/kg, iron 48 ± 26 mg/kg, zinc 34 ± 18 mg/kg) with the exception of manganese (268 ± 225 mg/kg), which could be considered on the high end of dietary adequacy for most herbivores. These data provide useful information that can be used to adjust nutrient targets for dietary development and feeding management of captive populations of tree kangaroos.

Unique reproductive strategy in the swamp wallaby.

Reproduction in mammals requires distinct cycles of ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy, and lactation often interspersed with periods of anoestrus when breeding does not occur. Macropodids, the largest extant species of marsupials, the kangaroos and wallabies, have a very different reproductive strategy to most eutherian mammals whereby young are born at a highly altricial stage of development with the majority of development occurring over a lengthy lactation period. Furthermore, the timings of ovulation and birth in some species occurs within a very short interval of each other (sometimes hours). Female swamp wallabies have an oestrous cycle shorter than their pregnancy length and were, therefore, speculated to mate and form a new embryo before birth thereby supporting two conceptuses at different stages of pregnancy. To confirm this, we used high-resolution ultrasound to monitor reproduction in swamp wallabies during pregnancy. Here, we show that females ovulate, mate, and form a new embryo prepartum while still carrying a full-term fetus in the contralateral uterus. This embryo enters embryonic diapause until the newborn leaves the pouch 9 mo later. Thus, combined with embryonic diapause, females are continuously pregnant and lactating at the same time throughout their reproductive life, a unique reproductive strategy that completely blurs the normal staged system of reproduction in mammals.

Understanding Historical Demographic Processes to Inform Contemporary Conservation of an Arid zone Specialist: The Yellow-Footed Rock-Wallaby.

Little genetic research has been undertaken on mammals across the vast expanse of the arid biome in Australia, despite continuing species decline and need for conservation management. Here, we evaluate the contemporary and historical genetic connectivity of the yellow-footed rock-wallaby, Petrogalexanthopusxanthopus, a threatened macropodid which inhabits rocky outcrops across the disconnected mountain range systems of the southern arid biome. We use 17 microsatellite loci together with mitochondrial control region data to determine the genetic diversity of populations and the evolutionary processes shaping contemporary population dynamics on which to base conservation recommendations. Our results indicate the highly fragmented populations have reduced diversity and limited contemporary gene flow, with most populations having been through population bottlenecks. Despite limited contemporary gene flow, the phylogeographic relationships of the mitochondrial control region indicate a lack of structure and suggests greater historical connectivity. This is an emerging outcome for mammals across this arid region. On the basis of our results, we recommend augmentation of populations of P. x.xanthopus, mixing populations from disjunct mountain range systems to reduce the chance of continued diversity loss and inbreeding depression, and therefore maximize the potential for populations to adapt and survive into the future.

A Pilot Study for Estimating the Cardiopulmonary Signals of Diverse Exotic Animals Using a Digital Camera.

Monitoring the cardiopulmonary signal of animals is a challenge for veterinarians in conditions when contact with a conscious animal is inconvenient, difficult, damaging, distressing or dangerous to personnel or the animal subject. In this pilot study, we demonstrate a computer vision-based system and use examples of exotic, untamed species to demonstrate this means to extract the cardiopulmonary signal. Subject animals included the following species: Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), African lions (Panthera leo), Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae), koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), red kangaroo (Macropus rufus), alpaca (Vicugna pacos), little blue penguin (Eudyptula minor), Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) and Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas). The study was done without need for restriction, fixation, contact or disruption of the daily routine of the subjects. The pilot system extracts the signal from the abdominal-thoracic region, where cardiopulmonary activity is most likely to be visible using image sequences captured by a digital camera. The results show motion on the body surface of the subjects that is characteristic of cardiopulmonary activity and is likely to be useful to estimate physiological parameters (pulse rate and breathing rate) of animals without any physical contact. The results of the study suggest that a fully controlled study against conventional physiological monitoring equipment is ethically warranted, which may lead to a novel approach to non-contact physiological monitoring and remotely sensed health assessment of animals. The method shows promise for applications in veterinary practice, conservation and game management, animal welfare and zoological and behavioral studies.

The anatomy of a crushing bite: The specialised cranial mechanics of a giant extinct kangaroo.

The Sthenurinae were a diverse subfamily of short-faced kangaroos that arose in the Miocene and diversified during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Many species possessed skull morphologies that were relatively structurally reinforced with bone, suggesting that they were adapted to incorporate particularly resistant foods into their diets. However, the functional roles of many unique, robust features of the sthenurine cranium are not yet clearly defined. Here, the finite element method is applied to conduct a comprehensive analysis of unilateral biting along the cheek tooth battery of a well-represented sthenurine, Simosthenurus occidentalis. The results are compared with those of an extant species considered to be of most similar ecology and cranial proportions to this species, the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). The simulations reveal that the cranium of S. occidentalis could produce and withstand comparatively high forces during unilateral biting. Its greatly expanded zygomatic arches potentially housed enlarged zygomaticomandibularis muscles, shown here to reduce the risk of dislocation of the temporomandibular joint during biting with the rear of a broad, extensive cheek tooth row. This may also be a function of the zygomaticomandibularis in the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), another species known to exhibit an enlarged zygomatic arch and hypertrophy of this muscle. Furthermore, the expanded frontal plates of the S. occidentalis cranium form broad arches of bone with the braincase and deepened maxillae that each extend from the anterior tooth rows to their opposing jaw joints. These arches are demonstrated here to be a key feature in resisting high torsional forces during unilateral premolar biting on large, resistant food items. This supports the notion that S. occidentalis fed thick, lignified vegetation directly to the cheek teeth in a similar manner to that described for the giant panda when crushing mature bamboo culms.

EVALUATION OF NONINVASIVE OSCILLOMETRIC BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORING IN ANESTHETIZED BENNETT'S WALLABIES (MACROPUS RUFOGRISEUS).

The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of a noninvasive oscillometric method in relation to invasively measured blood pressure in anesthetized Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) and also to compare the accuracy of two commonly used oscillometric blood pressure monitors (manufactured by Cardell and Datascope). Eleven animals were anesthetized, and each animal was instrumented with an arterial catheter in the right medial metatarsal artery connected to a pressure transducer to obtain invasive measurements of systolic (SAP), diastolic (DAP), and mean (MAP) arterial blood pressure as well as a pressure waveform. A cuff connected to an oscillometric device was placed on the base of the tail for noninvasive measurements. Paired data from noninvasive and invasive blood pressure measurements (SAP, DAP, and MAP) were obtained every 5 min for 60 min. Bland-Altman plots were used to compare invasive and noninvasive measurements and calculate bias and 95% limits of agreement for SAP, DAP, and MAP. For both monitors, the bias of SAP, DAP, and MAP was significant, although the bias of the Cardell was consistently lower than that of the Datascope for all parameters. Limits of agreement were wide for all parameters. In conclusion, when using an oscillometric blood pressure monitor on anesthetized Bennett's wallabies, trends in blood pressure may be monitored, although all displayed readings may not represent the true blood pressure measurement. Indirect measurements of blood pressure made with the oscillometric device cannot substitute for direct measurements.

The tammar wallaby: a non-traditional animal model to study growth axis maturation.

Maturation of the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) axis is a critical developmental event that becomes functional over the peripartum period in precocial eutherian mammals such as sheep. In mice and marsupials that give birth to altricial young, the GH/IGF1 axis matures well after birth, suggesting that functional maturation is associated with developmental stage, not parturition. Recent foster-forward studies in one marsupial, the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii), have corroborated this hypothesis. 'Fostering' tammar young not only markedly accelerates their development and growth rates, but also affects the timing of maturation of the growth axis compared with normal growing young, providing a novel non-traditional animal model for nutritional manipulation. This review discusses how nutrition affects the maturation of the growth axis in marsupials compared with traditional eutherian animal models.

Activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in open versus closed exhibit designs.

Although many studies investigating the impacts of zoo exhibit designs on captive animals exist, none have been performed on how they influence the behavior and welfare of captive Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Here, we assess the impact of exhibit design on the activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies. We compared animal behavior in two open exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors permitted) to two closed exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors prohibited). Behavioral data were collected using focal sampling, and spatial distribution was recorded on exhibit maps at regular time intervals. We found a significant increase in feeding and interactive behaviors in closed exhibits in comparison to open exhibits. However, other behaviors such as resting, locomotion, and vigilance did not vary with design. Functional use of space was similar between both designs; however, the effect of habituation may be relevant to consider in future studies. Although some support for visitor effects were present, our study provided no evidence for strong impacts of exhibit design on Bennett's wallaby welfare. Our study emphasizes the need for additional research into the impacts of how zoo environments affect Bennett's wallaby behavior and welfare.

Comparative analysis of milk microRNA in the therian lineage highlights the evolution of lactation.

Milk is a complex secretion that has an important role in mammalian reproduction. It is only recently that sequencing technologies have allowed the identification and quantification of microRNA (miRNA) in milk of a growing number of mammalian species. This provides a novel window on the study of the evolution and functionality of milk through the comparative analysis of milk miRNA content. Here, milk miRNA sequencing data from five species (one marsupial (tammar wallaby) and four eutherians (human, mouse, cow and pig)) have been retrieved from public depositories and integrated in order to perform a comparison of milk miRNA profiles. The study shows that milk miRNA composition varies widely between species, except for a few miRNAs that are ubiquitously expressed in the milk of all mammals and indicates that milk miRNA secretion has broadly evolved during mammalian evolution. The putative functions of the most abundant milk miRNAs are also discussed.

Incorporating intraspecific variation into dental microwear texture analysis.

Dental microwear texture analysis (DMTA) quantifies microscopic scar or wear patterns left on teeth by different foods or extraneous ingested items such as grit. It can be a powerful tool for deducing the diets of extinct mammals. Here we investigate how intraspecific variation in the dental microwear of macropodids (kangaroos and their close relatives) can be used to maximize the dietary signal inferable from an inherently limited fossil record. We demonstrate significant intraspecific variation for every factor considered here for both scale-sensitive fractal analysis and International Organization for Standardization surface texture analysis variables. Intraspecific factors were then incorporated into interspecific (dietary) analyses through the use of Linear Mixed Effects modelling, incorporating Akaike's Information Criterion to compare models, and testing models through independent cross-validation. This revealed that for each DMTA variable only a small number of intraspecific factors need to be included to improve differentiation between species. Including specimen as a random factor accounted for stochastic inter-individual variation, and facet, incorporated effects of sampling location. Intraspecific effects of ecoregion, microscope, tooth position and wear were often but not universally important. We conclude that models of microwear data that include intraspecific variation can improve the resolution of dietary reconstructions.