Proto-Endocrinological Theories of Masculinity/Femininity (1490-1904).

From the mid-seventeenth century, resorption of a testicular "ferment" and resorption of some part of the semen constituted reputable accounts of secondary sexual characteristics. Only in the early twentieth century was the latter, "recrementitious secretion" theory, explicitly considered superseded by one of internal secretion, an advance ushering in the hormone era. A reconstruction of these proto-endocrinological concepts is offered onward from the first, 1490 print edition of Galen's On Semen. Early modern physicians picking up from Galen deliberated widely on the medium and pathway of male and female testicular influences on "the entire body," including the mind, causing "femininity" and "masculinity" in physical, mental-temperamental, and behavioral terms. A switch is discernible from "heat and strength" (Galen) to blood-borne "virility" or testicular vapor (such as proposed in 1564 by Tomás Rodrigues da Veiga), to iatrochemical postulations of a "seminal ferment" (suggested in the late 1650s, perhaps independently, by Thomas Willis at Oxford and Lambert van Velthuysen in Utrecht), finally to a "seminal recrement" or "reabsorbed semen" concept soon after (emergent in the posthumous work of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, among others). During the late eighteenth century, mounting controversy surrounded both the very idea of that concept and the involved anatomical pathways, informed by multiple experiments.

Fluidez sexual: contextualização histórica e contributos teóricos / Fluidez sexual: contextualización histórico y aportaciones teóricas / Sexual fluidity: historical contextualization and theoretical contributions

RESUMO. Neste estudo, tivemos como objetivo aprofundar o conceito de fluidez sexual pela análise crítica da literatura e de uma síntese integrativa sobre o tema. Nele, analisamos estudos que se debruçam sobre a fluidez sexual, exploramos o conceito, sob orientação do modo como Lisa Diamond o introduz na literatura científica, o define e operacionaliza. Por fim, debruçamo-nos sobre estudos no âmbito da fluidez sexual, a fim de perceber os significados atribuídos, e questionando o potencial viés de gênero que acompanha um conceito situado num tempo e num contexto heteronormativos. Como contributo para o aprofundamento do conceito e reforço das suas potencialidades, são apresentadas reflexões sobre a relação entre a fluidez sexual e a masculinidade hegemônica, uma relação pouco valorizada na literatura científica. Globalmente, este trabalho promove, criticamente e de modo interseccional, o questionamento sobre a fixação no sexo/gênero das pessoas envolvidas numa situação sexual e são discutidas as fronteiras do conceito de fluidez sexual e a sua (im)permeabilidade.

RESUMEN. En este estudio, buscamos profundizar el concepto de fluidez sexual a través de un análisis crítico de la literatura y de una síntesis integradora sobre el tema. Para tal, se analizaron estudios enfocados en la fluidez sexual y se exploró este mismo concepto según la guía de cómo Lisa Diamond lo introduce en la literatura científica, lo define y lo concretiza. El análisis de los estudios en torno de la fluidez sexual se realizó teniendo como objetivos comprender los significados atribuidos al concepto y cuestionar el posible sesgo de género que acompaña un concepto ubicado en un tiempo y en un contexto heteronormativos. De cara a profundizar el concepto y reforzar su potencial, se presentan reflexiones sobre la relación entre la fluidez sexual y la masculinidad hegemónica, una relación que no se tiene en cuenta habitualmente en la literatura científica. En general, este trabajo contribuye, de manera crítica e interseccional, al cuestionamiento sobre la fijación en el sexo/género de las personas involucradas en una situación sexual y discute los límites del concepto de fluidez sexual y su (im)permeabilidad.

ABSTRACT. In this study, we sought to deepen the concept of sexual fluidity through a critical analysis of the literature and an integrative synthesis on the topic. In it, we analyzed studies that focus on sexual fluidity, explored the concept, under the guidance of how Lisa Diamond introduces it into the scientific literature, defines it, and operationalizes it. Finally, we focused on studies on sexual fluidity, trying to understand the meanings attributed to the concept, questioning the potential gender bias that accompanies a concept located in a heteronormative time and context. As a contribution to the deepening of the concept and reinforcement of its potential, reflections are presented on the relationship between sexual fluidity and hegemonic masculinity, a relationship that is little valued in the scientific literature. Overall, this work promotes, critically and in an intersectional way, the questioning about the fixation in sex/gender of people involved in a sexual situation and discussed the boundaries of the concept of sexual fluidity and its (im)permeability.

A Historical Analysis of the Impact of Hegemonic Masculinities on Sexual Assault in the Lives of Ethnic Minority Women: Informing Nursing Interventions and Health Policy.

Women's experiences of sexual assault are rooted in and informed by a history that nurses need to understand in order to provide meaningful and effective care. In this article, we present a comprehensive literature review guided by intersectionality theory to deepen our understanding of the historical role that hegemonic masculinity plays in shaping ethnic minority women's experiences of sexual assault. Final sources included were analyzed using thematic analysis. On the basis of our analyses, we identified 4 themes: social order hierarchies, "othering" dynamics, economic labor divisions, and negative media/mass communication depiction. Our findings contribute to our understanding of these important histories that speak to the trauma of sexual violence inflicted upon the bodies of ethnic minority women, which we can incorporate into nursing education curricula. Incorporating this knowledge would equip nurses and allied health professionals with the necessary knowledge and skills that would enable them to help patients navigate multiple systems of oppression as they engage in help seeking following a sexual assault experience. This knowledge also acknowledges rather than dismisses the historically acceptable use of sexual violence against ethnic minority women. In addition, acknowledging these histories enables us to move forward as a society in engaging in an urgently needed cultural shift to address the hegemonic masculinities that perpetuate violence against women in the United States.

Hegemonic masculinity predicts 2016 and 2020 voting and candidate evaluations.

This work examined whether the endorsement of the culturally idealized form of masculinity-hegemonic masculinity (HM)-accounted for unique variance in men's and women's support for Donald Trump across seven studies (n = 2,007). Consistent with our theoretical backdrop, in the days (Studies 1 and 2) and months (Studies 3 through 6) following the 2016 American presidential election, women's and men's endorsement of HM predicted voting for and evaluations of Trump, over and above political party affiliation, gender, race, and education. These effects held when controlling for respondents' trust in the government, in contrast to a populist explanation of support for Trump. In addition, as conceptualized, HM was associated with less trust in the government (Study 3), more sexism (Study 4), more racism (Study 5), and more xenophobia (Study 6) but continued to predict unique variance in evaluations of Trump when controlling for each of these factors. Whereas HM predicted evaluations of Trump, across studies, social and prejudiced attitudes predicted evaluations of his democratic challengers: Clinton in 2016 and Biden in 2020. We replicate the findings of Studies 1 through 6 using a nationally representative sample of the United States (Study 7) 50 days prior to the 2020 presidential election. The findings highlight the importance of psychological examinations of masculinity as a cultural ideology to understand how men's and women's endorsement of HM legitimizes patriarchal dominance and reinforces gender, race, and class-based hierarchies via candidate support.

Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

"A Normal Amount of Masculine Hardness": Representations of Male Nurses in 1960s West Germany.

The nursing studies narrative of the role of masculinity can be summarized as follows: hegemonic masculinity prevents men from doing care work. An analysis of public relations efforts to recruit male nurses in West Germany during the 1960s does not provide evidence for such a link. Representing nursing as compatible with hegemonic masculinity was also able to legitimize the existence of male nurses, while the idea of promoting gender equality in nursing was advocated by exactly those institutions that enabled the eventual gender inequality within the profession. Finally, the thesis of hegemonic masculinity as some kind of anti-caregiving agent comes into question because of the success of the civilian service in West Germany, despite the gender shaming used to deter men from enlisting in it.

Masculinity, femininity, and leadership: Taking a closer look at the alpha female.

An extensive review and textual analysis of the academic and popular literature of the human alpha female was conducted to examine the social construction and expression of the alpha female identity in a small non-random sample of North American women (N = 398). This review revealed 2 predominant alpha female representations in the literature-one more masculine versus one more feminine-and 21 alpha female variables. In this sample of women, the "alpha female" was found to be a recognized socially constructed female identity. Univariate analysis revealed positive and highly significant differences in self-reported mean scores between alpha (N = 94) and non-alpha (N = 304) females for 10 variables including, masculine traits, leadership, strength, low introversion, self-esteem, life satisfaction, sexual experience, initiates sex, enjoys sex and playing a dominant role in sexual encounters, with alpha females scoring higher than non-alphas. The measure of masculine traits was identified as the only predictor of alpha female status as per the multiple regression model. Interestingly, both alpha and non-alpha women scored the same for the measure of feminine traits. Further, both groups scored higher for feminine traits than masculine traits. The results also revealed that neither social dominance nor sexual dominance were predictors of alpha female status which challenge academic and popularized representations of this identity. The results suggest that although the alpha female is often regarded as an exceptional and, at times, an exoticized form of femininity, like other femininities, her identity is marked by contradictions and tensions.

Implicações da vivência de prisão preventiva por violência conjugal: narrativas masculinas / Implications of the experience of preventive detention for intimate partner violence: male narratives / Implicaciones de la vivencia de prisión preventiva por violencia conyugal: narrativas masculinas

Objetiva-se conhecer as implicações da vivência de prisão preventiva por meio da história oral de homens em processo criminal por violência conjugal. Utilizou-se a história oral temática, sendo realizadas entrevistas semiestruturadas com 11 homens em processo criminal por violência conjugal que vivenciaram a prisão preventiva, residentes em Belém, Pará, Brasil, nos meses de junho e julho de 2015. Os dados foram organizados e categorizados segundo análise de conteúdo temática categorial. As narrativas masculinas despontaram para: implicações físicas e psíquicas, comprometimento de interação social, expressos pela exclusão familiar, problemas financeiros e dificuldade de empregabilidade. A análise das implicações da experiência de prisão preventiva permite refletir acerca da importância da articulação intersetorial, implementação de espaços reflexivos e discussões no campo das desigualdades de gênero.(AU)

This study explored the implications of the experience of preventive detention drawing on the oral histories of men being prosecuted for intimate partner violence. The oral history of 11 men living in Belém, Brazil being prosecuted for intimate partner violence and who had experienced preventive detention were collected using semi-structured interviews conducted between June and July 2015. The data was organized and categorized using thematic content analysis. The male narratives revealed physical and psychological implications and impaired social interaction, expressed by family exclusion, financial problems, and difficulty in finding employment. The analysis of the implications of experiences of preventive detention provided valuable insights into the importance of intersectorality, the creation of reflective spaces, and discussions in the field of gender inequality.(AU)

Tiene el objetivo de conocer las implicaciones de la vivencia de prisión preventiva por medio de la historia oral de hombres en proceso criminal por violencia conyugal. Se utilizó la historia oral temática, realizándose entrevistas semiestructuradas con 11 hombres en proceso criminal por violencia conyugal que experimentaron la prisión preventiva, residentes en Belém, Estado de Pará, Brasil, en los meses de junio y julio de 2015. Los datos se organizaron y categorizaron según análisis de contenido temático de categoría. Las narrativas masculinas mostraron las implicaciones físicas y psíquicas, el compromiso de la interacción social, expresados por la exclusión familiar, problemas financieros y dificultad de condición para el empleo. El análisis de las implicaciones de la experiencia de prisión preventiva permite reflexionar sobre la importancia de la articulación intersectorial, implementación de espacios reflexivos y discusiones en el campo de las desigualdades de género.(AU)

Síntomas de depresión en hombres / Depression Men's Symptoms

Resumen El objetivo de este estudio era el objetivo de la presente investigación comparativa es identificar los síntomas específicos de depresión en hombres y determinar si existe un sesgo diagnóstico en los criterios incluidos en el sistema DSM y CIE. Para ello se estudia una muestra clínica conformada por 156 hombres y 174 mujeres entre los 18 y los 65 años, con diagnóstico previo de depresión, y un grupo control compuesto por 149 hombres y 151 mujeres sin depresión. Para evaluar depresión se usó Cuestionario de Depresión en Hombres (CDH) y la Entrevista MINI (Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview). Para los análisis psicométricos se empleó el Modelo de Rasch desde la Teoría de Respuesta al Ítem y análisis comparativos multivariados. Se concluye que los hombres se deprimen de forma significativamente diferente de las mujeres y que parte de los síntomas identificados no son considerados en los sistemas nosológicos vigentes.

Abstract The aim of this study was to identify if there are symptoms of depression in men who are not described in diagnostic manuals available. This clinical sample comprised 156 men and 174 women between 18 and 65 years prior to diagnosis of depression, and 149 men and 151 women without depression used as controls is studied. To evaluate Depression Questionnaire Depression in Men (CDH) and Interview MINI (Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview) was used. For psychometric analyzes the Rasch model was used from the Item Response Theory and multivariate comparative analysis. We conclude that men are depressed significantly different from women and that some of the symptoms identified are not considered in the current nosological systems.

[Gender Norms and Expertise : Constructions of Gender in Psychiatrists' Legal Opinions in Imperial Germany, 1871-1914]. / Geschlechternormen und Expertise : Geschlechterkonstruktionen in psychiatrischen Gerichtsgutachten im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1871­1914.

This article focuses on notions of gender in psychiatrists' expert opinions written for lawsuits during the German Empire, 1871-1914. Four different narratives concerning gender can be identified in these testimonies. On the one hand, the reports describe women and men who did not conform to the gender stereotypes of the time. The psychiatrists found the non-conformist defendants to be of unsound mind. On the other hand, women and men who did conform to the gender stereotypes were also described. In those cases, however, "feminine" women were certified insane, whereas "masculine" men were accused of simulating a mental disease in order to avoid punishment. These findings strengthen basic assumptions of Feminist Epistemology by showing that first, psychiatric ideas of accountability were closely linked to the norm of "masculine" men and second, a double standard was used in assessing the soundness of minds of women and men respectively.

The Psychohistory of Child Maltreatment Among Antebellum Slaveholders: Part II.

In the psychohistory of the antebellum South, the extent of child abuse in slaveholder families is important for understanding how members of the southern elite were reared and the extent to which they were infected with the toxic residue of their elders' passions and rages. It is argued that the Old South was a developing region, rather than an already developed one. Consequently, the rate of child abuse that is characteristic of contemporary postindustrial societies is not the proper paradigm for conceptualizing the abuse rate in slaveholder families. It is proposed instead that the rate of child abuse in contemporary developing societies is a better fit for estimating abuse in the antebellum South. Societal and familial variables impinging on the abuse of slaveholder children­corporal punishment, alcohol consumption, hyper-masculinity, a traumatogenic culture of violence, wife abuse, maternal ambivalence and neglect, miscegenation and incest are discussed, as is the likelihood of maltreatment by slaves. Using a study of child abuse across 28 nations, tentative rates of abuse are proposed.

[Gender images in health education: a comparison between East and West Germany (1949-1990)]. / Geschlechterbilder in der Gesundheitsaufklärung im deutsch-deutschen Vergleich (1949-1990).

This essay takes a closer look at the shared traditions as well as separate developments in health education in both German states, based on the circulated gender images. Health education is a rewarding field of investigation because its materials not only convey information on the prevention of sickness or the cultivation of healthy lifestyles; they also--implicitly or explicitly--carry social key messages such as ideas regarding femininities and masculinities or the tasks and functions allocated to women and men within and outside the family. The fact, for instance, that women in East Germany were expected to be part of the labour force as early as the 1950 s, whereas their Western counterparts were expected to stay at home and look after the family, had an effect on health education. The question as to the normative images of femininity and masculinity is therefore at the centre of our inquiry. The sources used are health education publications and popular health magazines from both Germanies. Based on the parameters 'Home and Family', 'Work and Performance', 'Attractiveness and Outer Appearance', the ideas of femininity and masculinity, as portrayed in the health propaganda in East and West, are presented and compared. Analysis of these parameters shows that the gender images, while they coincided in some respects, also evolved in different ways in others, or that entirely different intentions were concealed behind the promotion of similar principles. Many of the guiding images discussed show how the two German states perceived each other. While there were attempts at dissociating from the other state entirely, there were also developments that seem to indicate that they referred to one another to a certain extent.

Conocimientos y actitudes de varones acerca de la planificación familiar / Knowledge and attitudes of males about family planning

Introducción: la participación de los hombres en la planificación familiar es todavía insuficiente, lo que se traduce en una escasa presencia masculina en estos servicios. Objetivo: identificar los conocimientos y actitudes de varones acerca de la planificación familiar. Métodos: estudio descriptivo de corte transversal con enfoque cuanti-cualitativo en el que participaron 75 compañeros sentimentales de las mujeres que acudieron a la consulta de planificación familiar en los dos policlínicos del municipio Sagua la Grande en la provincia de Villa Clara, en el periodo comprendido entre mayo y julio de 2013. Resultados: los conocimientos y actitudes de los hombres estudiados presentaron brechas desfavorables para la planificación familiar efectiva en la pareja; su escasa utilización y participación de los hombres en las consulta de planificación familiar está influenciada por estos, vinculado a los condicionamientos de género subyacentes. Conclusiones: los conocimientos y actitudes de los compañeros sentimentales de las mujeres que acuden a la consulta no fueron satisfactorios, por lo que se debería profundizar en investigaciones futuras y considerar el tema en los diseños de programas enfocados a la salud sexual y reproductiva de los varones(AU)

Introduction: the participation of men in family planning is still poor, resulting in low rate of male presence in these services. Objective: to identify knowledge and attitudes of males about family planning. Method: cross-sectional and descriptive study with quantitative-qualitative approach and participation of the sexual partners of women who went to the family planning service in two polyclinics located in Sagua La Grande municipality, Villa Clara province, from May to July 2013. Results: the knowledge and attitudes of the studied men showed unfavorable gaps for attaining effective family planning in a couple; their low rate of use of and participation in family planning services was linked to underlying gender conditioning. Conclusions: the knowledge and attitudes of the sexual partners of women who went to the aforementioned service were unsatisfactory, so future research should address in depth this topic and the issue should be considered in the design of sex and reproductive health programs for males(AU)

[A history of men's health--on the origin of a field of research]. / Männergesundheitsgeschichte--Zur Entstehung eines Forschungsfeldes.

This contribution traces the conditions surrounding the emergence and development of a new field of research since the millennium. It primarily presents research initiated by the Stuttgart Institute for the History of Medicine: starting with the (re)discovery of sources and the setting up of bodies of sources for a gender-sensitive, patient-oriented history of health (autobiographies, diaries, correspondence) it moves to issues such as health lifestyles, workers' masculinity, the use of medical services, health experiences during particular stages of life such as childhood or youth, as well as prevention, healthcare, mental health and the gender gap in life expectancy. In conclusion the article discusses possible theoretical frameworks and perspectives.

[Masculinity and Meat Consumption--Historical Approchaes to a Current Health Issue]. / Männlichkeit und Fleischkonsum--historische Annäherungen an eine gegenw rtige Gesundheitsthematik.

In current health debates meat is often discussed as a health risk. Statistically, men consume more meat than women. Therefore they often appear as an especially vulnerable risk group. Based on current discussions about an increased health risk for men because of an above-average consumption of meat, this paper outlines aspects of the historical development of the relationship between masculinity and meat consumption from the 19th to the 21st century and emphasizes the importance of cultural constructed gender expectations for the eating habits of many men.

[Accident cause masculinity?--Gender-related issues of accident victims between prevention and coping in Kaiserreich and Weimarer Republik]. / Unfallursache Männlichkeit?--Geschlechterspezifische Aspekte bei Arbeitsunfallopfern zwischen Prävention und FolgenbewäItigung in Kaiserreich und Weimarer Republik.

Occupational accidents in industrial workplaces are a specific health problem for man. Therefore it seems adequate to use masculinities as a category of research in this field. For the Kaiserreich and the Weimarer Republik it shows that male workers relating to their danger awareness and behavior, prevention, accident causes and coping strategies are settled in an area of conflict between a hard workplace environment and the family. On the basis of health practices of the accident victims it appears that there are different forms of labor masculinities. They have an important influence on all levels of an occupational accident from the endangerment to the success of the treatment. Through a critical use of the category academic void can be shown and alternative explanatory models can be offered.

[Migrants' masculinity and health. Taking care for one's health and coping with sickness of German migrants in the US in 19th and early 20th centuries]. / Männlichkeit und Gesundheit im Kontext von Migration. Praktiken der Gesundheitsfürsorge und KrankheitsbewäItigung deutscher Migranten in den USA im 19. Jahrhundert und frühen 20. Jahrhundert.

In 19. and early 20. centuries several million emigrants from German speaking countries entered the United States of America. How migrants coped with sickness, how they preserved their health and to which ressources and institutions of help they had access is yet an academic void. Using Ego-documents--letters, autobiographic texts and diaries--of near-illiterate men this paper will analyse 'healthy lifestyles' and practices of coping with sickness and contrast them with recent research findings in the field of 'mens' health'. Thereby the recent concept of ,male health-idiots' will be challenged in historical perspective.

["Should the staff's attitude towards the patients remain unchanged, I will not guarantee anything." Protest masculinity and coping of "rebellious patients" at the Heidelberg University Psychiatric Hospital on the eve of deinstitutionalization]. / "Sollte sich die Einstellung des Personals gegenüber den Patienten nicht ändern, garantiere ich für nichts mehr!" Protestmännlichkeit und KrankheitsbewäItigung von "aufsässigen Patienten" der Psychiatrischen Universitätskinik Heidelberg am Vorabend der Psychiatriereform.

This article analyses the illness experiences of male patients from the Heidelberg University Psychiatric Hospital during the protests against Psychiatry in the year 1973. Protest is one of the most important expressions of masculinity in socially disadvantaged men, such as men with mental disorders. The analysis of 100 medical records shows that some patients tried to construct themselves as men in a way that was explicitly motivated by antipsychiatric ideas: They questioned psychiatric authority, behaved "sexually inappropriate", or used drugs. On the eve of psychiatric reform in West Germany those patients were well aware that the alternative--complying with the treatment--would put them at considerable risk. In addition to the usual inference of hegemonic or normative masculinities as risk-factors, the behavior of those ,,rebellious patients" has to be interpreted as individual coping strategies.

[Health Education for Men by the Federal Centre of Health Education: A Contribution to the Presentation of Men as unaware of Health? (1970-1990)]. / Männerspezifische GesundheitsaufkIärung durch die BZgA: Ein Beitrag zur Verfestigung des Gesundheitsdefizitdiskurses? (1970-1990).

This article offers a close consideration about the gender-specific contents of health education campaigns in the Federal Republic of Germany from 1970 to 1990. By using educational publications issued by the Bundeszentrale für gesundheitliche Aufklärung (BZgA), it is shown which breaks and continuities emerged and which kinds of role models are thereby conveyed. Whereas the health education of the 1950s and 1960s was characterised by a didactical approach towards men and women, this changed as from the 1970s. By deconstructing exemplary education campaigns and including internal files of the BZgA, it can be shown, that the societal discourse on the feminism in the FRG contributed to the fact, that during the 1970s the switch has been made to an increased use of positive role models. However, within the men-specific health education there was no break; the health deficiency discourse was still applied in many and diverse ways in order to describe male health behaviour and knowledge.

An Introduction to Scientific Masculinities.

This volume seeks to integrate gender analysis into the global history of science and medicine from the late Middle Ages to the present by focusing on masculinity, the part of the gender equation that has received the least attention from scholars. The premise of the volume is that social constructions of masculinity function simultaneously as foils for femininity and as methods of differentiating between "kinds" of men. In exploring scientific masculinities without taking the dominance of men and masculinity in the sciences for granted, we ask, What is masculinity and how does it operate in science? Our answers remind us that gender is at once an analytical category and a historical object. The essays are divided into three sections that in turn emphasize the importance of gender to the professionalization of scientific, technological, and medical practices, the spaces in which such labor is performed, and the ways that sex, gender, and sexual orientation are measured and serve as metaphors in society and culture.