Peritoneal dialysis: Status report in South and South East Asia.

BACKGROUND: Peritoneal dialysis (PD) as a modality of kidney replacement therapy (KRT) is largely underutilized globally. We analyzed PD utilization, impact of economic status, projected growth and impact of state policy(s) on PD growth in South Asia and Southeast Asia (SA&SEA) region. METHODS: The National Nephrology Societies of the region responded to a questionnaire on KRT practices. The responses were based on the latest registry data, acceptable community-based studies and societal perceptions. The representative countries were divided into high income and higher-middle income (HI & HMI) and low income and lower-middle income (LI & LMI) groups. RESULTS: Data provided by 15 countries showed almost similar percentage of GDP as health expenditure (4%-7%). But there was a significant difference in per capita income (HI & HMI -US$ 28 129 vs. LI & LMI - US$ 1710.2) between the groups. Even after having no significant difference in monthly cost of haemodialysis (HD) and PD in LI & LMI countries, they have poorer PD utilization as compared to HI & HMI countries (3.4% vs. 10.1%); the reason being lack of formal training/incentives and time constraints for the nephrologist while lack of reimbursement and poor general awareness of modalities has been a snag for the patients. The region expects ≥10% PD growth in the near future. Hong Kong and Thailand with 'PD first' policy have the highest PD utilization. CONCLUSION: Important deterrents to PD underutilization were lack of PD centric policies, lackadaisical patient/physician's attitude, lack of structured patient awareness programs, formal training programs and affordability.

"What do you think about nephrology?" A national survey of internal medicine residents.

BACKGROUND: Interest in nephrology has been declining among internal medicine residents but the reasons behind this observation are not well characterized. Our objective was to evaluate factors influencing residents' choice of subspecialty. METHODS: This is a mixed-method QUAL-QUAN design study that used the results of our previously published qualitative analysis on residents' perception of nephrology to create and pilot a questionnaire of 60 questions. The final questionnaire was distributed to 26 programs across the United States and a total of 1992 residents. We calculated response rates and tabulated participant characteristics and percentage of participant responses. We categorized choice of fellowship into 2 medical categories (Highly Sought After vs. Less Sought After) and fitted a logistic regression model of choosing a highly vs. less sought after fellowship. RESULTS: Four hundred fifteen out of 1992 (21%) US residents responded to the survey. Of the 268 residents planning to pursue fellowship training, 67 (25%) selected a less sought after fellowship. Female sex was associated with significantly higher odds of selecting a less sought after fellowship (OR = 2.64, 95% CI: 1.47, 4.74). Major factors deterring residents from pursuing nephrology were perception of inadequate financial compensation, broad scope of clinical practice and complexity of patient population. We observed a decline in exposure to nephrology during the clinical years of medical school with only 35.4% of respondents rotating in nephrology versus 76.8% in residency. The quality of nephrology education was rated less positively during clinical medical school years (median of 50 on a 0-100 point scale) compared to the pre-clinical years (median 60) and residency (median 75). CONCLUSION: Our study attempts to explain the declining interest in nephrology. Results suggest potential targets for improvement: diversified trainee exposure, sub-specialization of nephrology, and increased involvement of nephrologists in the education of trainees.

Clinical, Operative, and Economic Outcomes of the Point-of-Care Blood Gases in the Nephrology Department of a Third-Level Hospital.

CONTEXT.­: Point-of-care testing allows rapid analysis and short turnaround times. To the best of our knowledge, the present study assesses, for the first time, clinical, operative, and economic outcomes of point-of-care blood gas analysis in a nephrology department. OBJECTIVE.­: To evaluate the impact after implementing blood gas analysis in the nephrology department, considering clinical (differences in blood gas analysis results, critical results), operative (turnaround time, elapsed time between consecutive blood gas analysis, preanalytical errors), and economic (total cost per process) outcomes. DESIGN.­: A total amount of 3195 venous blood gas analyses from 688 patients of the nephrology department before and after point-of-care blood gas analyzer installation were included. Blood gas analysis results obtained by ABL90 FLEX PLUS were acquired from the laboratory information system. Statistical analyses were performed using SAS 9.3 software. RESULTS.­: During the point-of-care testing period, there was an increase in blood glucose levels and a decrease in pCO2, lactate, and sodium as well as fewer critical values (especially glucose and lactate). The turnaround time and the mean elapsed time were shorter. By the beginning of this period, the number of preanalytical errors increased; however, no statistically significant differences were found during year-long monitoring. Although there was an increase in the total number of blood gas analysis requests, the total cost per process decreased. CONCLUSIONS.­: The implementation of a point-of-care blood gas analysis in a nephrology department has a positive impact on clinical, operative, and economic terms of patient care.

Cost-analysis of persistent hyperkalaemia in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients under nephrology care in Italy.

AIM: In patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), hyperkalaemia (HK) (potassium level ≥ 5.0 mEq/L) is associated with poor clinical outcomes. This study provides novel insights by comparing management costs of CKD patients with normokalaemia vs those with persistent HK regularly followed in renal clinics in Italy. METHODS: To this aim, a Markov model over life-time horizon was developed. Time to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and time to death in CKD patients were derived from an observational multi-centre database including 1665 patients with non-dialysis CKD stage 1-5 under nephrology care in Italy (15 years follow-up). Resource use for CKD and HK management was obtained from the observational database, KDIGO international guidelines, and clinical expert opinion. RESULTS: Results showed that patients with normokalaemia vs persistent HK brought an average per patient lifetime cost-saving of €16 059 besides delayed onset of ESRD by 2.29 years and increased survival by 1.79 years with increment in total survival and dialysis-free survival in normokalaemia that decreased from early to advanced disease. Cost-saving related to normokalaemia increased at more advanced CKD; however, it was already evident at early stage (3388.97€ at stage 1-3a). OWSA confirmed cost-saving associated with normokalaemia across all parameter variations. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: This model is the first to simulate the impact of HK in non-dialysis CKD patients on economic and clinical outcomes using real-world data from nephrology clinics. In these patients, persistent HK results into higher lifetime costs, besides poorer clinical outcomes, that are evident since the early stages of CKD. Maintaining normokalaemia should therefore be of main concern in CKD treatment planning to improve long-term economic and clinical outcomes.

Conflicts of interest in dialysis: A barrier to policy reforms.

Conflicts of interest involving physicians are commonplace in the US, occurring across many different specialties and subspecialties in a variety of clinical settings. In nephrology, two important scenarios in which conflicts of interest arise are dialysis facility joint venture (JV) arrangements and financial participation in End-stage Kidney Disease Seamless Care Organizations (ESCOs). Whether conflicts of interest occurring in either of these settings influence decision-making or patient care outcomes is not known due to a lack of transparent, publicly available information, and opportunities to conduct independent study. We discuss possible benefits and risks of nephrologist's financial participation in JVs and ESCOs and possible mechanisms for disclosure and reporting of such arrangements as well as risk mitigation.

Effect of nephrology referrals and multidisciplinary care programs on renal replacement and medical costs on patients with advanced chronic kidney disease: A retrospective cohort study.

Evidence-based studies have revealed outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease that differed depending on the design of care delivery. This study compared the effects of 3 types of nephrology care: multidisciplinary care (MDC), nephrology care, and non-nephrology care. We studied their effects on the risks of requiring dialysis and the differences between these methods had on long-term medical resource utilization and costs.We conducted a retrospective cohort study involving patients with an estimated glomerular filtration rate of (eGFR) ≤45 mL/min/1.73 m from 2005 to 2007. Patients were divided into MDC, non-MDC, and non-nephrology referral groups. Between-group differences with regard to the risk of requiring dialysis and annual medical utilization and costs were evaluated using a 5-year follow-up period.In total, 661 patients were included. After other covariates and the competing risk of death were taken into account, we observed a significant (56%) reduction in the incidence of dialysis in both the MDC and non-MDC groups relative to the non-nephrology referral group. Costs were markedly lower in the MDC group relative to the other groups (average savings: US$ 830 per year; 95% confidence interval: 367-1295; P < .001).For patients without nephrology referrals, MDC can substantially reduce their risk of developing end-stage renal disease and lower their medical costs. We therefore strongly advocate that all patients with an eGFR of ≤45 mL/min/1.73 m should be referred to a nephrologist and receive MDC.

Why are hospitalisations too long? A simple checklist for identifying the main social barriers to hospital discharge from a nephrology ward.

The present increase in life span has been accompanied by an even higher increase in the burden of comorbidity. The challenges to healthcare systems are enormous and performance measures have been introduced to make the provision of healthcare more cost-efficient. Performance of hospitalisation is basically defined by the relationship between hospital stay, use of hospital resources, and main diagnosis/diagnoses and complication(s), adjusted for case mix. These factors, combined in different indexes, are compared with the performance of similar hospitals in the same and other countries. The reasons why an approach like this is being employed are clear.Cutting costs cannot be the only criteria, in particular in elderly, high-comorbidity patients: in this population, although social issues are important determinants of hospital stay, they are rarely taken into account or quantified in evaluations. Quantifying the impact of the "social barriers" to care can serve as a marker of the overall quality of treatment a network provides, and point to specific out-of-hospital needs, necessary to improve in-hospital performance. We therefore propose a simple, empiric medico-social checklist that can be used in nephrology wards to assess the presence of social barriers to hospital discharge and quantify their weight.Using the checklist should allow: identifying patients with social frailty that could complicate hospitalisation and/or discharge; evaluating the social needs of patient and entourage at the beginning of hospitalisation, adopting timely procedures, within the partnership with out-of-hospital teams; facilitating prioritization of interventions by social workers.The following ten items were empirically identified: reason for hospitalisation; hospitalisation in relation to the caregiver's problems; recurrent unplanned hospitalisations or early re-hospitalisation; social/family isolation; presence of a dependent relative in the patient's household; lack of housing or unsuitable housing/accommodation; loss of autonomy; lack of economic resources; lack of a safe environment; evidence of physical or psychological abuse.The simple tool here described needs validation; the present proposal is aimed at raising attention on the importance of non-medical issues in medical organisation in our specialty, and is open to discussion, to allow its refinement.

Current practice of diagnosis and management of acute kidney injury in intensive care unit in resource limited settings.

PURPOSE: In a resource limited settings, there is sparse information about the management of acute kidney injury (AKI) based on systemic data collection. This survey aimed to described the current management of AKI in intensive care units (ICUs) across Thailand. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Questionnaires were distributed to 160 physicians involved in the intensive care between January and December 2014 across Thailand. Distribution was done through an online survey platform or telephone interview. RESULTS: The response rate was 80.6% (129 physicians). AKI diagnosis was mostly made by using KDIGO criteria (36.7%). A common diagnostic investigation of AKI was urinalysis (86%). Nephrologists had a major role (86.4%) in deciding the initiation and selection of renal replacement therapy (RRT) modality. Intermittent hemodialysis is the preferable mode of RRT (72.0%), followed by continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT, 12%), sustained low efficiency dialysis (10.0%) and peritoneal dialysis (6.0%). Catheter insertion was predominantly performed by nephrologist (51.1%) with ultrasound guidance. The right internal jugular vein was the most common site of insertion (70.4%). The most common indication for CRRT was hemodynamic instability. CONCLUSIONS: Amid increasing concern of AKI in the ICU, our study provides the insight into the management of AKI in resource limited settings.

Integrating kidney transplantation into value-based care for people with renal failure.

Healthcare reimbursement is increasingly tied to value instead of volume, with special attention paid to resource-intensive populations such as patients with renal disease. To this end, Medicare has sponsored pilot projects to encourage providers to develop care coordination and population health management strategies to provide quality care while reducing resource utilization. In this Personal Viewpoint essay, we argue in favor of expanding one such pilot project-the Comprehensive ESRD Care (CEC) initiative-to include patients with advanced chronic kidney disease and kidney transplant recipients. The implementation of the Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act (MACRA) offers a time-sensitive incentive for transplant centers in particular to align with extant CECs. An "expanded" CEC model proffers opportunity for robust cooperation between general nephrology practices, dialysis providers, and transplant centers to develop care coordination strategies for all patients with renal disease, realign incentives for all clinical stakeholders to increase kidney transplantation rates, and reduce total costs of care.

The cost-saving effect and prevention of medication errors by clinical pharmacist intervention in a nephrology unit.

Medication errors may lead to adverse drug events (ADEs), which endangers patient safety and increases healthcare-related costs. The on-ward deployment of clinical pharmacists has been shown to reduce preventable ADEs, and save costs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ADEs prevention and cost-saving effects by clinical pharmacist deployment in a nephrology ward.This was a retrospective study, which compared the number of pharmacist interventions 1 year before and after a clinical pharmacist was deployed in a nephrology ward. The clinical pharmacist attended ward rounds, reviewed and revised all medication orders, and gave active recommendations of medication use. For intervention analysis, the numbers and types of the pharmacist's interventions in medication orders and the active recommendations were compared. For cost analysis, both estimated cost saving and avoidance were calculated and compared.The total numbers of pharmacist interventions in medication orders were 824 in 2012 (preintervention), and 1977 in 2013 (postintervention). The numbers of active recommendation were 40 in 2012, and 253 in 2013. The estimated cost savings in 2012 and 2013 were NT$52,072 and NT$144,138, respectively. The estimated cost avoidances of preventable ADEs in 2012 and 2013 were NT$3,383,700 and NT$7,342,200, respectively. The benefit/cost ratio increased from 4.29 to 9.36, and average admission days decreased by 2 days after the on-ward deployment of a clinical pharmacist.The number of pharmacist's interventions increased dramatically after her on-ward deployment. This service could reduce medication errors, preventable ADEs, and costs of both medications and potential ADEs.

The Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act: Implications for Nephrology.

In response to rising Medicare costs, Congress passed the Medicare Access and Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act in 2015. The law fundamentally changes the way that health care providers are reimbursed by implementing a pay for performance system that rewards providers for high-value health care. As of the beginning of 2017, providers will be evaluated on quality and in later years, cost as well. High-quality, cost-efficient providers will receive bonuses in reimbursement, and low-quality, expensive providers will be penalized financially. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services will evaluate provider costs through episodes of care, which are currently in development, and alternative payment models. Although dialysis-specific alternative payment models have already been implemented, current models do not address the transition of patients from CKD to ESRD, a particularly vulnerable time for patients. Nephrology providers have an opportunity to develop cost-efficient ways to care for patients during these transitions. Efforts like these, if successful, will help ensure that Medicare remains solvent in coming years.

Orphan drug policies and use in pediatric nephrology.

Orphan drugs designed to treat rare diseases are often overpriced per patient. Novel treatments are sometimes even more expensive for patients with ultra-rare diseases, in part due to the limited number of patients. Pharmaceutical companies that develop a patented life-saving drug are in a position to charge a very high price, which, at best, may enable these companies to further develop drugs for use in rare disease. However, is there a limit to how much a life-saving drug should cost annually per patient? Government interventions and regulations may opt to withhold a life-saving drug solely due to its high price and cost-effectiveness. Processes related to drug pricing, reimbursement, and thereby availability, vary between countries, thus having implications on patient care. These processes are discussed, with specific focus on three drugs used in pediatric nephrology: agalsidase beta (for Fabry disease), eculizumab (for atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome), and cysteamine bitartrate (for cystinosis). Access to and costs of orphan drugs have most profound implications for patients, but also for their physicians, hospitals, insurance policies, and society at large, particularly from financial and ethical standpoints.

Is nephrology specialty at risk?

Interest in nephrology as a career choice has been steadily waning among internal medicine residents. This decline is reflected in a significant increment in unfilled fellowship training spots for several years. Interventional nephrology can help to reinvigorate an interest in nephrology as a whole.