Evolution of an Extended Pathogenicity Motif in VP2 of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus Isolates from Farmed Rainbow Trout in Turkey.

Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) causes economic losses with a highly variable mortality rate worldwide, especially in rainbow trout. The virus has a double-stranded bi-partite RNA genome designated segment A and B. New complete genome sequences of nine rainbow trout isolates from Turkey were determined and subjected to phylogenetic analysis, identifying all as genotype 5 (serotype Sp). A time-dependent change in the extended pathogenicity motif of VP2 from P217T221A247 (PTA) to PTE P217T221E247 over a period of 10 years was identified. A wider analysis of 99 IPNV sequences from Turkey and Iran revealed the emergence of the motif PTE from 2007 to 2017, inducing significant morbidity in fry by 2013. In fact, displacement of the PTA motif, by the PTE motif in IPNV isolates appeared to be connected to a production peak of rainbow trout in 2013. An additional CAI analysis provided more evidence, indicating that rainbow trout culture in Turkey has an influence on the evolution of IPNV.

Preparation and evaluation of microencapsulated delivery system of recombinant interferon alpha protein from rainbow trout.

Diseases caused by viruses pose a significant risk to the health of aquatic animals, for which there are presently no efficacious remedies. Interferon (IFN) serving as an antiviral agent, is frequently employed in clinical settings. Due to the unique living conditions of aquatic animals, traditional injection of interferon is cumbersome, time-consuming and labor-intensive. This study aimed to prepare IFN microcapsules through emulsion technique by using resistant starch (RS) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS). Optimization was achieved using the Box-Behnken design (BBD) response surface technique, followed by the creation of microcapsules through emulsification. With RS at a concentration of 1.27 %, a water­oxygen ratio of 3.3:7.4, CaCl2 at 13.67 %, CMCS at 1.04 %, the rate of encapsulation can escalate to 80.92 %. Rainbow trout infected with Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) and common carp infected with Spring vireemia (SVCV) exhibited a relative survival rate (RPS) of 65 % and 60 % after treated with IFN microcapsules, respectively. Moreover, the microcapsules effectively reduced the serum AST levels and enhanced the expression of IFNα, IRF3, ISG15, MX1, PKR and Viperin in IHNV-infected rainbow trout and SVCV-infected carp. In conclusion, this integrated IFN microcapsule showed potential as an antiviral agent for treatment of viral diseases in aquaculture.

Heterologous Exchanges of Glycoprotein and Non-Virion Protein in Novirhabdoviruses: Assessment of Virulence in Yellow Perch (Perca flavescens) and Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) and viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) are rhabdoviruses in two different species belonging to the Novirhabdovirus genus. IHNV has a narrow host range restricted to trout and salmon species, and viruses in the M genogroup of IHNV have high virulence in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). In contrast, the VHSV genotype IVb that invaded the Great Lakes in the United States has a broad host range, with high virulence in yellow perch (Perca flavescens), but not in rainbow trout. By using reverse-genetic systems of IHNV-M and VHSV-IVb strains, we generated six IHNV:VHSV chimeric viruses in which the glycoprotein (G), non-virion-protein (NV), or both G and NV genes of IHNV-M were replaced with the analogous genes from VHSV-IVb, and vice versa. These chimeric viruses were used to challenge groups of rainbow trout and yellow perch. The parental recombinants rIHNV-M and rVHSV-IVb were highly virulent in rainbow trout and yellow perch, respectively. Parental rIHNV-M was avirulent in yellow perch, and chimeric rIHNV carrying G, NV, or G and NV genes from VHSV-IVb remained low in virulence in yellow perch. Similarly, the parental rVHSV-IVb exhibited low virulence in rainbow trout, and chimeric rVHSV with substituted G, NV, or G and NV genes from IHNV-M remained avirulent in rainbow trout. Thus, the G and NV genes of either virus were not sufficient to confer high host-specific virulence when exchanged into a heterologous species genome. Some exchanges of G and/or NV genes caused a loss of host-specific virulence, providing insights into possible roles in viral virulence or fitness, and interactions between viral proteins.

Analyses and Insights into Genetic Reassortment and Natural Selection as Key Drivers of Piscine orthoreovirus Evolution.

Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) is a pathogen that causes heart and skeletal muscle inflammation in Salmo salar and has also been linked to circulatory disorders in other farmed salmonids, such as Oncorhynchus kisutch and Oncorhynchus mykiss. The virus has a segmented, double-stranded RNA genome, which makes it possible to undergo genetic reassortment and increase its genomic diversity through point mutations. In this study, genetic reassortment in PRV was assessed using the full genome sequences available in public databases. This study used full genome sequences that were concatenated and genome-wide reassortment events, and phylogenetic analyses were performed using the recombination/reassortment detection program version 5 (RDP5 V 5.5) software. Additionally, each segment was aligned codon by codon, and overall mean distance and selection was tested using the Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis X software, version 10.2 (MEGA X version 10.2). The results showed that there were 17 significant reassortment events in 12 reassortant sequences, involving genome exchange between low and highly virulent genotypes. PRV sequences from different salmonid host species did not appear to limit the reassortment. This study found that PRV frequently undergoes reassortment events to increase the diversity of its segmented genome, leading to antigenic variation and increased virulence. This study also noted that to date, no reassortment events have been described between PRV-1 and PRV-3 genotypes. However, the number of complete genomic sequences within each genotype is uneven. This is important because PRV-3 induces cross-protection against PRV-1, making it a potential vaccine candidate.

Evaluation of potential antiviral activities of antimicrobial peptides in fish mucus.

BACKGROUND: Fish skin mucus contains innate immune factors and acts as the first line of physical or chemical defense against pathogens. OBJECTIVE: The primary aim of this study was to determine the antiviral activity of sea bream (SBr), rainbow trout (RT), and sea bass (SBa) fish skin mucus against herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1. In addition, it was aimed to associate possible antiviral activity with antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as cathelicidin, hepcidin, galectin 2, and C10ORF99, whose levels were determined in the mucus. METHODS: The antiviral activity and oxidative/antioxidant status of mucus against HSV-1 virus was evaluated. In addition, AMPs, SOD, and CAT activities, and immunoglobulin M levels were also analyzed in mucus of fish. RESULTS: Antiviral activity mucus of SBr, RT, and SBa against HSV-1 were determined as 2-4, 2-5, and 2-2, respectively. The higher antiviral activity of SBr and RT mucus compared to the mucus of SBa can be associated with higher AMP levels in them. CONCLUSION: The skin mucus of SBr and RT may be nutritional supplement, adjuvant, and a new agent that can potentiate the effects of antimicrobial/antiviral agents.

Potential application of antiviral coumarin in aquaculture against IHNV infection by reducing viral adhesion to the epithelial cell surface.

Due to the lack of relevant therapies for infectious haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) infection, the viral outbreak invariably causes serious economic losses in salmonid species. In this study, we evaluated the anti-IHNV effects of 7-(6-benzimidazole) coumarin (C10) and 4-phenyl-2-thioxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-5H-chromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidin-5-one (S5) in vitro and in vivo. The results revealed that C10 at 12.5 mg/L and S5 at 25 mg/L significantly inhibited IHNV replication in epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells with a maximum inhibitory rate >90%, showing that IHNV-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) was alleviated by C10 and S5. There are two complementary effects on antiviral mechanism: 1. C10 completely inhibited IHNV infectivity when the virus was preincubated with C10 at 12.5 mg/L, determining that C10 may have a negative impact on IHNV binding to the cell; 2. C10 also up-regulated the gene expression of extracellular proto type galectin-1 (Gal1-L2) and a chimera galectin-3 (Gal3-L1) of EPC cells to inhibit IHNV adhesion. For the in vivo study, injection and immersion of the coumarins enhanced the survival rate of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles by 25% (at least) at 12 dpi. IHNV loads in the kidney and spleen were also obviously decreased at 96 h, and thus we considered that they had a delaying effect on IHNV replication in vivo. Meanwhile, C10 with a high stability in aquacultural water in immersion suppressed IHNV horizontal transmission by decreasing the viral loads in recipient fish. Overall, our data suggest that there is a positive effect of C10 and S5 against IHNV infection in aquaculture, and C10 had the potential to be a broad-spectrum antiviral against fish rhabdoviruses.

Molecular Characterization and Expression Analysis of Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1) Genes in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Response to Viral, Bacterial and Parasitic Challenge.

The intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), known as CD54, is a transmembrane cell surface glycoprotein that interacts with two integrins (i.e., LFA-1 and Mac-l) important for trans-endothelial migration of leukocytes. The level of ICAM-1 expression is upregulated in response to some inflammatory stimulations, including pathogen infection and proinflammatory cytokines. Yet, to date, our knowledge regarding the functional role of ICAM-1 in teleost fish remains largely unknown. In this study, we cloned and characterized the sequence of ICAM-1 in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) for the first time, which exhibited that the molecular features of ICAM-1 in fishes were relatively conserved compared with human ICAM-1. The transcriptional level of ICAM-1 was detected in 12 different tissues, and we found high expression of this gene in the head kidney, spleen, gills, skin, nose, and pharynx. Moreover, upon stimulation with infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), Flavobacterium columnare G4 (F. columnare), and Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich) in rainbow trout, the morphological changes were observed in the skin and gills, and enhanced expression of ICAM-1 mRNA was detected both in the systemic and mucosal tissues. These results indicate that ICAM-1 may be implicated in the mucosal immune responses to viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections in teleost fish, meaning that ICAM-1 emerges as a master regulator of mucosal immune responses against pathogen infections in teleost fish.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel coumarin derivatives in rhabdoviral clearance.

Diseases caused by rhabdoviruses have had a huge impact on the productive lives of the entire human population. The main problem is the lack of drugs for the treatment of this family of viruses. Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), the causative agent of IHN, is a typical rhabdovirus which has caused huge losses to the salmonid industry. Therefore, in this study, IHNV was studied as a model to evaluate the antiviral activity of 35 novel coumarin derivatives. Coumarin A9 was specifically selected for further validation studies upon comparing the half maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) of four screened candidate derivatives in epithelioma papulosum cyprinid (EPC) cells, as it exhibited an IC50 value of 2.96 µM against IHNV. The data revealed that A9 treatment significantly suppressed the virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE) in EPC cells. In addition, A9 showed IC50 values of 1.68 and 2.12 µM for two other rhabdoviruses, spring viremia of carp virus and micropterus salmoides rhabdovirus, respectively. Furthermore, our results suggest that A9 exerts antiviral activity, but not by destroying the virus particles and interfering with the adsorption of IHNV. Moreover, we found that A9 had an inhibitory effect on IHNV-induced apoptosis in EPC cells, as reflected by the protection against cell swelling, formation of apoptotic bodies, and loss of cell morphology and nuclear division. There was a 19.05 % reduction in the number of apoptotic cells in the A9 treatment group compared with that in the IHNV group. In addition, enzyme activity assays proved that A9 suppressed the expression of caspase 3, 8 and 9. These results suggested that A9 inhibit viral replication, to some extent, by blocking IHNV-induced apoptosis. In an in vivo study, A9 exhibited an anti-rhabdovirus effect in virus-infected fish by substantially enhancing the survival rate. Consistent with the above results, A9 repressed IHNV gene expression in virus-sensitive tissues (brain, kidney and spleen) in the early stages of virus infection. Importantly, the data showed that horizontal transmission of IHNV was reduced by A9 in a static cohabitation challenge model, especially in fish that underwent bath treatment, suggesting that A9 might be a suitable therapeutic agent for IHNV in aquaculture. Therefore, coumarin derivatives can be developed as antiviral agents against rhabdoviruses.

Evidence of Transcriptional Shutoff by Pathogenic Viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia Virus in Rainbow Trout.

The basis of pathogenicity of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) was analysed in the transcriptome of a rainbow trout cell line inoculated with pathogenic and non-pathogenic VHSV isolates. Although both VHSV isolates showed similar viral replication patterns, the number of differentially expressed genes was 42-fold higher in cells inoculated with the non-pathogenic VHSV at 3 h post inoculation (hpi). Infection with the non-pathogenic isolate resulted in Gene Ontologies (GO) enrichment of terms such as immune response, cytokine-mediated signalling pathway, regulation of translational initiation, unfolded protein binding, and protein folding, and induced an over-representation of the p53, PPAR, and TGF-ß signalling pathways. Inoculation with the pathogenic isolate resulted in the GO enrichment of terms related to lipid metabolism and the salmonella infection KEGG pathway involved in the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton. Antiviral response was evident at 12hpi in cells infected with the pathogenic isolate. Overall, the data showed a delay in the response of genes involved in immune responses and viral sensing in cells inoculated with the pathogenic isolate and suggest transcriptional shutoff and immune avoidance as a critical mechanism of pathogenicity in VHSV. These pathways offer opportunities to further understand and manage VHSV pathogenicity in rainbow trout.

Virus shedding kinetics and unconventional virulence tradeoffs.

Tradeoff theory, which postulates that virulence provides both transmission costs and benefits for pathogens, has become widely adopted by the scientific community. Although theoretical literature exploring virulence-tradeoffs is vast, empirical studies validating various assumptions still remain sparse. In particular, truncation of transmission duration as a cost of virulence has been difficult to quantify with robust controlled in vivo studies. We sought to fill this knowledge gap by investigating how transmission rate and duration were associated with virulence for infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Using host mortality to quantify virulence and viral shedding to quantify transmission, we found that IHNV did not conform to classical tradeoff theory. More virulent genotypes of the virus were found to have longer transmission durations due to lower recovery rates of infected hosts, but the relationship was not saturating as assumed by tradeoff theory. Furthermore, the impact of host mortality on limiting transmission duration was minimal and greatly outweighed by recovery. Transmission rate differences between high and low virulence genotypes were also small and inconsistent. Ultimately, more virulent genotypes were found to have the overall fitness advantage, and there was no apparent constraint on the evolution of increased virulence for IHNV. However, using a mathematical model parameterized with experimental data, it was found that host culling resurrected the virulence tradeoff and provided low virulence genotypes with the advantage. Human-induced or natural culling, as well as host population fragmentation, may be some of the mechanisms by which virulence diversity is maintained in nature. This work highlights the importance of considering non-classical virulence tradeoffs.

Modifications of the nucleoprotein of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus showed gain of virulence in intraperitoneally infected rainbow trout.

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) is the cause of an important listed disease in European rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) aquaculture and can be present in a wide range of fish species, including marine fish, which can act as viral reservoir. Recent studies revealed putative genetic virulence markers of VHSV to rainbow trout highlighting the roles of the nucleoprotein, phosphoprotein and non-virion protein. Using reverse genetics, we produced recombinant viruses by introducing parts of or the entire nucleoprotein from a high-virulent isolate VHSV into a low-virulent backbone. Furthermore, we also made recombinant viruses by introducing residue modifications in the nucleoprotein that seem to play a role in virulence. Rainbow trout challenged with these recombinant viruses (rVHSVs) by intraperitoneal injection (IP) developed clinical signs and showed lower survival when compared to the parental rVHSV whereas fish challenged by immersion did not show clinical signs except for the high-virulent control. The mutations did not influence the viral growth in cell culture. The recombinant viruses and parental recombinant were unable to replicate and show cytopathic effect in EPC cells whereas the high-virulent control was well adapted in all the fish cell lines tested. We showed evidence that corroborates with the hypothesis that the nucleoprotein has virulence motifs associated with VHSV virulence in rainbow trout.

Molecular Epidemiology of Novirhabdoviruses Emerging in Iranian Trout Farms.

Novirhabdoviruses cause large epizootics and economic losses of farmed trout. In this study, we surveyed Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus and Infectious hematopoietic and necrosis virus (VHSV and IHNV) through both monitoring and investigation of clinical outbreaks reported by farmers in the regions with major rainbow trout production in Iran from 2015 to 2019. RT-PCR assays of the kidney samples and cell culture (EPC/FHM cells) samples confirmed the presence of the viruses, with 9 VHSV and 4 IHNV isolates, in both endemic and new areas of Iran. Sequence analysis of the G gene revealed that VHSV isolates belonged to genogroup Ia, and IHNV isolates were clustered into genogroup E, both typical for isolates from European countries. A haplotype analysis based on non-homologous amino acids of the G gene supports the emergence of two lineages of IHNV from clade 1 (E-1), as well as VHSV clade 2 (Ia-2) of the European genogroups, confirming that VHSV and IHNV isolates in Iran, have originated from Europe possibly via imported eggs.

Molecular Evolution of Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus in China.

Passive virus surveillance was performed in twenty-nine salmon and trout farms from seven provinces and districts in China during the period 2017-2020. A total of 25 infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) isolates were obtained, mainly from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The molecular evolution of these Chinese IPNV isolates and the previously reported Chinese IPNV strains ChRtm213 and WZ2016 was analyzed, based on their VP2 gene coding region sequences (CDS). All 27 Chinese IPNV isolates clustered within genogroups I and V, with 24 of the IPNV isolates belonging to genogroup I (including ChRtm213 and WZ2016), and only three isolates clustering in genogroup V. The Chinese genogroup I IPNV isolates lacked diversity, composing six haplotypes with 41 polymorphic sites, and the identity of nucleotide and amino acid sequences among the entire VP2 gene CDS from these isolates was 97.44%-100% and 98.19%-100%, respectively. Divergence time analyses revealed that the Chinese genogroup I IPNV isolates likely diverged from Japanese IPNV isolates in 1985 (95% highest posterior density (HPD), 1965-1997), and diverged again in 2006 (95% HPD, 1996-2013) in China. Each of the three Chinese genogroup V IPNV isolates has a unique VP2 gene CDS, with a total of 21 polymorphic sites; the identity of nucleotide and amino acid sequences among all VP2 gene CDS from these isolates was 98.5%-99.5% and 98.6%-99.0%, respectively. The data demonstrate that genogroups I and V are more likely the currently prevalent Chinese IPNV genotypes.

Isolation of a New Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus (IPNV) Variant from a Fish Farm in Scotland.

The aquatic virus, infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), is known to infect various farmed fish, in particular salmonids, and is responsible for large economic losses in the aquaculture industry. Common practices to detect the virus include qPCR tests based on specific primers and serum neutralization tests for virus serotyping. Following the potential presence of IPNV viruses in a fish farm in Scotland containing vaccinated and IPNV-resistant fish, the common serotyping of the IPNV isolates was not made possible. This led us to determine the complete genome of the new IPNV isolates in order to investigate the cause of the serotyping discrepancy. Next-generation sequencing using the Illumina technology along with the sequence-independent single primer amplification (SISPA) approach was conducted to fully characterize the new Scottish isolates. With this approach, the full genome of two isolates, V1810-4 and V1810-6, was determined and analyzed. The potential origin of the virus isolates was investigated by phylogenetic analyses along with tridimensional and secondary protein structure analyses. These revealed the emergence of a new variant from one of the main virus serotypes, probably caused by the presence of selective pressure exerted by the vaccinated IPNV-resistant farmed fish.

Transcriptome profiling in head kidney of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after infection with the low-virulent Nagano genotype of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus.

Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) causes clinical diseases and mortality in a wide variety of salmonid species. Here, we studied transcriptional responses in rainbow trout infected by the IHNV-Nagano strain isolated in Korea. RNA-seq-based transcriptome analysis of head kidney tissues cataloged differentially expressed genes. Enrichment analysis of gene ontology annotations was performed, and a total of fifteen biological process terms were commonly identified at all time points. In the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis, pathogen recognition receptor (PRR) signaling pathways such as the retinoic-acid-inducible gene-I-like receptor signaling pathway and the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway were identified at all time points. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization-domain-like receptor signaling pathway and cytosolic DNA-sensing pathway were identified at days 1 and 3. Protein-protein interaction network and centrality analyses revealed that the immune system, signaling molecules, and interaction pathways were upregulated at days 1 and 3, with the highest centrality of tumor necrosis factor. Cancer, cellular community, and endocrine system pathways were downregulated, with the highest centrality of fibronectin 1 at day 5. STAT1 was upregulated from days 1 to 5 with a high centrality. The reproducibility and repeatability of the transcriptome analysis were validated by RT-qPCR. IHNV-Nagano infection dynamically changed the transcriptome profiles in the head kidney of rainbow trout and induced a defense mechanism by regulating the immune and inflammatory pathways through PRR signaling at an early stage. Downregulated pathways involved in extracellular matrix formation and focal adhesion at day 5 indicated the possible failure of wound healing, which is important in the pathogenesis of IHNV infection.

Comparative analysis of the course of infection and the immune response in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) infected with the 5 genotypes of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus.

Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) is a pathogen of importance for salmonid aquaculture. In this study, we aimed to characterize virus behavior and defense mechanisms developed in rainbow trout (RT, Oncorhynchus mykiss) experimentally infected with isolates belonging to the five described genotypes of IHNV, i.e. L, U, M, E and J. Mortality was monitored for two months, and blood and target organs were sampled at different times post-infection to assess viral load and cellular and humoral immune responses. Profiles of virulence were highly linked to precocious viral replication but also to the innate and specific immunity elicited in the host. Seroneutralization test (SNT) used for specific antibodies detection exhibited reliable results, with efficient cross-neutralization observed in heterologous systems except for the Asian representative. These data bring new insights about IHNV/RT interaction and reinforce the interest of SNT as preventive and epidemiological tool.

Differential Transcriptomic Response of Rainbow Trout to Infection with Two Strains of IPNV.

The IPN virus (IPNV) causes a highly contagious disease that affects farmed salmonids. IPNV isolates have been phylogenetically classified into seven genogroups, of which two are present in Chile, genogroups 1 and 5. This study aimed to compare the transcriptomic response of rainbow trout fry challenged with two Chilean isolates of IPNV, RTTX (genogroup 1), and ALKA (genogroup 5). Tissue samples from challenged individuals and controls were taken at 1, 7, and 20 days post-challenge and analyzed by RNA-Seq. The results revealed that infection with RTTX elicited a greater modulation of the trout transcriptome compared to ALKA infection, generating a greater number of highly differentially expressed genes in relation to the control fish. Gene Ontology enrichment indicated that functions related to the inflammatory and immune responses were modulated in fish challenged with both isolates throughout the trial, but with different regulation patterns. On day 1 post challenge, these functions were activated in those challenged with ALKA, but suppressed in RTTX-challenged fish. These results suggest that rainbow trout exhibit a differential transcriptomic response to infection with the two genetically distinct IPNV isolates, especially at early times post-infection.

Insights Into the Evolution of the prdm1/Blimp1 Gene Family in Teleost Fish.

In mammals, Blimp1 (B lymphocyte-induced maturation protein 1) encoded by the prdm1 gene and its homolog Hobit (homolog of Blimp1 in T cells) encoded by znf683, represent key transcriptional factors that control the development and differentiation of both B and T cells. Despite their essential role in the regulation of acquired immunity, this gene family has been largely unexplored in teleosts to date. Until now, one prdm1 gene has been identified in most teleost species, whereas a znf683 homolog has not yet been reported in any of these species. Focusing our analysis on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), an in silico identification and characterization of prdm1-like genes has been undertaken, confirming that prdm1 and znf683 evolved from a common ancestor gene, acquiring three gene copies after the teleost-specific whole genome duplication event (WGD) and six genes after the salmonid-specific WGD. Additional transcriptional studies to study how each of these genes are regulated in homeostasis, in response to a viral infection or in B cells in different differentiation stages, provide novel insights as to how this gene family evolved and how their encoded products might be implicated in the lymphocyte differentiation process in teleosts.

VHSV IVb infection and autophagy modulation in the rainbow trout gill epithelial cell line RTgill-W1.

Autophagy modulation influences the success of intracellular pathogens, and an understanding of the mechanisms involved might offer practical options to reduce the impact of infectious disease. Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) can cause high mortality and economic loss in some commercial fish species. VHSV IVb was used to infect a rainbow trout gill cell line, RTgill-W1, followed by the treatment of the cells with different autophagy-modulating reagents. LC3II protein using Western blot was significantly (p < .05) decreased for two days following VHSV infection, and immunofluorescence confirmed that LC3II-positive intracytoplasmic puncta were also decreased. Infection with VHSV resulted in significantly decreased expression of the autophagy-related (Atg) genes atg4, at12, atg13 and becn1 after one day using quantitative PCR. Both viral gene copy number and VHSV N protein were significantly decreased by treating the cells with autophagy-blocking (chloroquine) and autophagy-inhibiting reagents (deoxynivalenol and 3-methyladenine) after three days, while autophagy induction (restricted nutrition and rapamycin) had limited effect. Only treatment of RTgill-W1 with deoxynivalenol resulted in a significant increase in expression of type I interferon. Therefore, the suppression of autophagy initially occurs after VHSV IVb infection, but the modulation of autophagy can also inhibit VHSV IVb infection in RTgill-W1 after three days.

Beyond Cholera: Characterization of zot-Encoding Filamentous Phages in the Marine Fish Pathogen Vibrio anguillarum.

Zonula occludens toxin (Zot) is a conserved protein in filamentous vibriophages and has been reported as a putative toxin in Vibrio cholerae. Recently, widespread distribution of zot-encoding prophages was found among marine Vibrio species, including environmental isolates. However, little is known about the dynamics of these prophages beyond V. cholerae. In this study, we characterized and quantified the zot-encoding filamentous phage VAIϕ, spontaneously induced from the fish pathogen V. anguillarum. VAIϕ contained 6117 bp encoding 11 ORFs, including ORF8pVAI, exhibiting 27%-73% amino acid identity to Inovirus Zot-like proteins. A qPCR method revealed an average of four VAIϕ genomes per host genome during host exponential growth phase, and PCR demonstrated dissemination of induced VAIϕ to other V. anguillarum strains through re-integration in non-lysogens. VAIϕ integrated into both chromosomes of V. anguillarum by recombination, causing changes in a putative ORF in the phage genome. Phylogenetic analysis of the V. anguillarumInoviridae elements revealed mosaic genome structures related to mainly V. cholerae. Altogether, this study contributes to the understanding of Inovirus infection dynamics and mobilization of zot-like genes beyond human pathogenic vibrios, and discusses their potential role in the evolution of the fish pathogen V. anguillarum.