The role of neophobia in a pioneer olfactory enrichment for amazons, macaws, and toucans / El papel de la neofobia en un enriquecimiento olfativo pionero para guacamayos, loros y tucanes

Abstract Introduction: Despite sensory enrichment being critical for ensuring the well-being of captive wild animals, smells are not being included in enrichment protocols for birds. For this group, neophobia can be a problem when it comes to implementing new enrichment devices. Objective: To explore how participation in an olfactory enrichment and latency times varies between bird taxonomic groups (Amazona spp. / Ara spp. / Ramphastos spp.). Methods: We exposed 257 birds to a scent enrichment, and we recorded which individuals engaged with it and the time they took to interact with it. Results: We discovered that participation by toucans in the enrichment was higher compared to amazons and macaws. Furthermore, latency time to interact with the enrichment was higher in amazons that in the other species. Our findings could suggest that toucans are neophilic species which could benefit from higher exploration rates. Amazons on the contrary seem to be particularly neophobic, possibly because of their less opportunistic feeding habits compared to toucans and their higher vulnerability to predation compared to macaws. Conclusion: These results point out that toucans would be more inclined to engage in environmental enrichments, while a more natural design using smells inside familiar objects could be a more successful enrichment for psittacids.

Resumen Introducción: A pesar de que el enriquecimiento sensorial es fundamental para garantizar el bienestar de los animales silvestres en cautiverio, los olores no son incluidos de forma rutinaria en los protocolos de enriquecimiento para aves. Además, en el caso de estos animales, la neofobia puede ser un problema a la hora de implementar nuevos dispositivos de enriquecimiento. Objetivo: Explorar cómo varía la participación y la latencia en la interacción con un enriquecimiento olfativo entre grupos taxonómicos de aves (Amazona spp. / Ara spp. / Ramphastos spp.). Métodos: Expusimos a 257 aves a un enriquecimiento olfativo y registramos qué individuos participaron y el tiempo que tardaron en interactuar con él. Resultados: La participación en el enriquecimiento fue mayor en los tucanes en comparación con las amazonas y los guacamayos. Además, el tiempo de latencia para interactuar con el enriquecimiento fue mayor en las amazonas que en las otras especies. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que los tucanes son especies neofílicas que podrían beneficiarse de tasas de exploración más altas. Por otro lado, las amazonas parecen ser particularmente neofóbicas, posiblemente debido a sus hábitos alimenticios menos oportunistas en comparación con los tucanes y a su mayor vulnerabilidad a la depredación en comparación con los guacamayos. Conclusión: Estos resultados señalan que los tucanes serían más proclives a participar en enriquecimientos ambientales, mientras que un diseño que utilice olores dentro de objetos más naturales o familiares podría ser más exitoso para las psitácidas.

Managing climate-change refugia to prevent extinctions.

Earth is facing simultaneous biodiversity and climate crises. Climate-change refugia - areas that are relatively buffered from climate change - can help address both of these problems by maintaining biodiversity components when the surrounding landscape no longer can. However, this capacity to support biodiversity is often vulnerable to severe climate change and other stressors. Thus, management actions need to consider the complex and multidimensional nature of refugia. We outline an approach to understand refugia-promoting processes and to evaluate refugial capacity to determine suitable management actions. Our framework applies climate-change refugia as tools to facilitate resistance in modern conservation planning. Such refugia-focused management can reduce extinctions and maintain biodiversity under climate change.

Thermal refugia reinforce macroalgal resilience against climate change in the southeastern Bay of Biscay.

Rising global temperatures present unprecedented challenges to marine ecosystems, demanding a profound understanding of their ecological dynamics for effective conservation strategies. Over a comprehensive macroalgal assessment spanning three decades, we investigated the spatiotemporal evolution of shallow-water benthic communities in the southern Bay of Biscay, uncovering climate-resilient areas amidst the ongoing phase shift in the region. Our investigation identified seven locations serving as potential climate refugia, where cold-affinity, canopy-forming macroalgal species persisted and community structure was similar to that observed in 1991. We unveiled a clear association between the emergence of these refugia, sea surface temperature (SST), and the Community Temperature Index, positioning SST as a significant driver of the observed phase shift in the region. Warming processes, defined as tropicalization (increase of warm-affinity species) and deborealization (decrease of cold-affinity species), were prominent outside refugia. In contrast, cooling processes, defined as borealization (increase of cold-affinity species) and detropicalization (decrease of warm-affinity species), prevailed inside refugia. Refugia exhibited approximately 35% lower warming processes compared to non-refuge areas. This resulted in a dominance of warm-affinity species outside refugia, contrasting with the stability observed within refugia. The persistence of canopy-forming species in refuge areas significantly contributed to maintaining ecosystem diversity and stability. These findings underscored the pivotal role of climate refugia in mitigating climate-driven impacts. Prioritizing the protection and restoration of these refugia can foster resilience and ensure the preservation of biodiversity for future generations. Our study illustrates the importance of refining our understanding of how marine ecosystems respond to climate change, offering actionable insights essential for informed conservation strategies and sustainable environmental management.

Vertical arrays of artificial rockpools on a seawall provide refugia across tidal levels for intertidal species in the UK.

Eco-engineering of coastal infrastructure aims to address the insufficient intertidal habitat provided by coastal development and flood defence. There are numerous ways to enhance coastal infrastructure with habitat features, but a common method involves retrofitting artificial rockpools. Often these are 'bolt-on' units that are fixed to existing coastal infrastructure but there is a paucity of literature on how to optimise their arrangement for biodiversity. In this study, 24 artificial rockpools were installed at three levels between High Water Neaps and Mean Tide Level on a vertical concrete seawall on the south coast of the UK. The species abundance of the rockpools and adjacent seawall were surveyed at low tide for 2 years following rockpool installation and compared. Over the course of the study, sediment had begun to accumulate in some of the rockpools. At the 2-year mark, the sediment was removed and assessed for macrofauna. Algal biomass of the seawall and rockpools was estimated using previously obtained dry weight values for the dominant algae taxa. After 2 years, it was determined that artificial rockpools successfully increase species richness of seawalls, particularly at higher tidal levels where water-retaining refugia are crucial for many species. The rockpools hosted 37 sessile taxa and 9 sessile taxa were recorded on the seawall. Rockpools increased the vertical elevation for brown canopy-forming seaweeds by providing better attachment surfaces. Although the retained sediment only hosted 3 infaunal species, it was observed to provide shelter for shore crabs during surveys. As sea levels and ocean and air temperatures continue to rise, vertical eco-engineering arrangements will play a crucial role in allowing species to migrate up the tidal zone, negating habitat loss and localised extinction.

Identifying climate refugia for wild yaks (Bos mutus) on the Tibetan Plateau.

Climate change is threatening fragile alpine ecosystems and their resident ungulates, particularly the wild yak (Bos mutus) that inhabits alpine areas between the tree line and glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau. Although wild yaks tend to shift habitats in response to changes in climatic factors, the precise impacts of climate change on their habitat distribution and climate refugia remain unclear. Based on over 1000 occurrence records, the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) algorithm was applied to simulate habitat ranges in the last glacial maximum (LGM), Mid-Holocene, current stage, and three greenhouse gas emission scenarios in 2070. Three habitat patches were identified as climate refugia for wild yaks that have persisted from the LGM to the present and are projected to persist until 2070. These stable areas account for approximately 64% of the current wild yak habitat extent and are sufficiently large to support viable populations. The long-term persistence of these climate refugia areas is primarily attributed to the unique alpine environmental features of the Tibetan Plateau, where relatively stable arid or semi-arid climates are maintained, and a wide range of forage resource supplies are available. However, habitat loss by 2070 caused by insufficient protection is predicted to lead to severe fragmentation in the southeastern and northwestern Kunlun, Hengduan, central-western Qilian, and southern Tanggula-northern Himalaya Mountains. Habitat disturbance has also been caused by increasing anthropogenic effects in the southern Tanggula and northern Himalaya Mountains. We suggest that sufficient protection, transboundary cooperation, and community involvement are required to improve wild yak conservation efforts. Our combined modeling method (MaxEnt-Zonation-Linkage Mapper-FRAGSTAT) can be utilized to identify priority areas and linkages between habitat patches while assessing the conservation efficiency of protected areas and analyzing the coupled relationship between climate change and anthropogenic impacts on the habitat distribution of endangered species.

Forest genomics in the Caucasus through the lens of its dominant tree species - Fagus orientalis.

The last glacial period is known to have greatly influenced the demographic history of temperate forest trees, with important range contractions and post-glacial expansions that led to the formation of multiple genetic lineages and secondary contact zones in the Northern Hemisphere. These dynamics have been extensively studied for European and North American species but are still poorly understood in other temperate regions of rich biodiversity such as the Caucasus. Our study helps filling that gap by deciphering the genomic landscapes of F. orientalis across the South Caucasus. The use of genome-wide data confirmed a past demographic history strongly influenced by the Last Glacial Maximum, revealing two disjunct glacial refugia in the Colchis and Hyrcanian regions. The resulting patterns of genetic diversity, load and differentiation are not always concordant across the region, with genetic load pinpointing the location of the glacial refugia more efficiently than genetic diversity alone. The Hyrcanian forests show depleted genetic diversity and substantial isolation, even if long-distance gene flow is still present with the main centre of diversity in the Greater Caucasus. Finally, we characterize a strong heterogeneity of genetic diversity and differentiation along the species chromosomes, with noticeably a first chromosome showing low diversity and weak differentiation.

Ecological dynamics of moa extinctions reveal convergent refugia that today harbour flightless birds.

Human settlement of islands across the Pacific Ocean was followed by waves of faunal extinctions that occurred so rapidly that their dynamics are difficult to reconstruct in space and time. These extinctions included large, wingless birds called moa that were endemic to New Zealand. Here we reconstructed the range and extinction dynamics of six genetically distinct species of moa across New Zealand at a fine spatiotemporal resolution, using hundreds of thousands of process-explicit simulations of climate-human-moa interactions, which were validated against inferences of occurrence and range contraction from an extensive fossil record. These process-based simulations revealed important interspecific differences in the ecological and demographic attributes of moa and established how these differences influenced likely trajectories of geographic and demographic declines of moa following Polynesian colonization of New Zealand. We show that despite these interspecific differences in extinction dynamics, the spatial patterns of geographic range collapse of moa species were probably similar. It is most likely that the final populations of all moa species persisted in suboptimal habitats in cold, mountainous areas that were generally last and least impacted by people. We find that these refugia for the last populations of moa continue to serve as isolated sanctuaries for New Zealand's remaining flightless birds, providing fresh insights for conserving endemic species in the face of current and future threats.

Can upwelling regions be potential thermal refugia for marine fishes during climate warming?

Species are expected to migrate to higher latitudes as warming intensifies due to anthropogenic climate change since physiological mechanisms have been adapted to maximize fitness under specific temperatures. However, literature suggests that upwellings could act as thermal refugia under climate warming protecting marine ecosystem diversity. This research aimed to predict the effects of climate warming on commercial and non-commercial fish species reported in official Mexican documents (>200 species) based on their thermal niche to observe if upwellings can act as potential thermal refugia. Present (2000-2014) and Representative Concentration Pathway (6.0 and 8.5) scenarios (2040-2050 and 2090-2100) have been considered for this work. Current and future suitability patterns, species distribution, richness, and turnover were calculated using the minimum volume ellipsoids as algorithm. The results in this study highlight that beyond migration to higher latitudes, upwelling regions could protect marine fishes, although the mechanism differed between the innate characteristics of upwellings. Most modeled species (primarily tropical fishes) found refuge in the tropical upwelling in Northern Yucatan. However, the highest warming scenario overwhelmed this region. In contrast, the Baja California region lies within the Eastern Boundary Upwelling Systems. While the area experiences an increase in suitability, the northern regions have a higher upwelling intensity acting as environmental barriers for many tropical species. Conversely, in the southern regions where upwelling is weaker, species tend to congregate and persist even during elevated warming, according to the turnover analysis. These findings suggest that tropicalization in higher latitudes may not be as straightforward as previously assumed. Nevertheless, climate change affects numerous ecosystem features, such as trophic relationships, phenology, and other environmental variables not considered here. In addition, uncertainty still exists about the assumption of increasing intensity of upwelling systems.

Hotspot shelters stimulate frog resistance to chytridiomycosis.

Many threats to biodiversity cannot be eliminated; for example, invasive pathogens may be ubiquitous. Chytridiomycosis is a fungal disease that has spread worldwide, driving at least 90 amphibian species to extinction, and severely affecting hundreds of others1-4. Once the disease spreads to a new environment, it is likely to become a permanent part of that ecosystem. To enable coexistence with chytridiomycosis in the field, we devised an intervention that exploits host defences and pathogen vulnerabilities. Here we show that sunlight-heated artificial refugia attract endangered frogs and enable body temperatures high enough to clear infections, and that having recovered in this way, frogs are subsequently resistant to chytridiomycosis even under cool conditions that are optimal for fungal growth. Our results provide a simple, inexpensive and widely applicable strategy to buffer frogs against chytridiomycosis in nature. The refugia are immediately useful for the endangered species we tested and will have broader utility for amphibian species with similar ecologies. Furthermore, our concept could be applied to other wildlife diseases in which differences in host and pathogen physiologies can be exploited. The refugia are made from cheap and readily available materials and therefore could be rapidly adopted by wildlife managers and the public. In summary, habitat protection alone cannot protect species that are affected by invasive diseases, but simple manipulations to microhabitat structure could spell the difference between the extinction and the persistence of endangered amphibians.

Predictable patterns within the kelp forest can indirectly create temporary refugia from ocean acidification.

Kelps are recognized for providing many ecosystem services in coastal areas and considered in ocean acidification (OA) mitigation. However, assessing OA modification requires an understanding of the multiple parameters involved in carbonate chemistry, especially in highly dynamic systems. We studied the effects of sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) on an experimental farm at the north end of Hood Canal, Washington-a low retentive coastal system. In this field mesocosm study, two oyster species (Magallana gigas, Ostrea lurida) were exposed at locations in the mid, edge, and outside the kelp array. The Hood Head Sugar Kelp Farm Model outputs were used to identify dominating factors in spatial and temporal kelp dynamics, while wavelet spectrum analyses helped in understanding predictability patterns. This was linked to the measured biological responses (dissolution, growth, isotopes) of the exposed organisms. Positioned in an area of high (sub)-diel tidal fluxes with low retention potential, there were no measurable alterations of the seawater pH at the study site, demonstrating that the kelp array could not induce a direct mitigating effect against OA. However, beneficial responses in calcifiers were still observed, which are linked to two causes: increased pH predictability and improved provisioning through kelp-derived particulate organic resource utilization and as such, kelp improved habitat suitability and indirectly created refugia against OA. This study can serve as an analogue for many coastal bay habitats where prevailing physical forcing drives chemical changes. Future macrophyte studies that investigate OA mitigating effects should focus also on the importance of predictability patterns, which can additionally improve the conditions for marine calcifiers and ecosystem services vulnerable to or compromised by OA, including aquaculture sustainability.

Does coevolution in refugia drive mimicry in bumble bees? Insights from a South Asian mimicry group.

Müllerian mimicry was proposed to be an example of a coevolved mutualism promoted by population isolation in glacial refugia. This, however, has not been well supported in butterfly models. Here, we use genomic data to test this theory while examining the population genetics behind mimetic diversification in a pair of co-mimetic bumble bees, Bombus breviceps Smith and Bombus trifasciatus Smith. In both lineages, populations were structured by geography but not as much by color pattern, suggesting sharing of color alleles across regions of restricted gene flow and formation of mimicry complexes in the absence of genetic differentiation. Demographic analyses showed mismatches between historical effective population size changes and glacial cycles, and niche modeling revealed only mild habitat retraction during glaciation. Moreover, mimetic subpopulations of the same color form in the two lineages only in some cases exhibit similar population history and genetic divergence. Therefore, the current study supports a more complex history in this comimicry than a simple refugium-coevolution model.

Central China as LGM plant refugia: Insights from biome reconstruction for palaeoclimate information.

The demonstration of survival of forest stands in relatively stable refugia during cold glacial stages has offered an increased understanding of the response of vegetation to climate change, but also provides insight into considerations for the conversation of biodiversity hotspots. However, refugia studies in China remain in question due to the lack of plant macrofossils, especially those of endemic and relict species. Palynology, while more broad brush, provides a method for exploring whether refugia occur, and can provide some details of palaeovegetation composition and temporal dynamics. Here, three pollen records derived from subalpine wetlands in central China, spanning the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), have been coupled with biome and mean annual precipitation (MAP) reconstructions to identify the presence of trees that endured cold climate. The results indicated that some forest, including temperate deciduous broadleaf forest and cool mixed forest, survived the LGM at the three locations, and was thus at odds with the hypothesis that forests were replaced by herbs and grasses in central China at that time. Refugia favored by protection from cold air drainage and the availability of adequate water can explain the survival of the trees during otherwise harsh episodes. Our findings are consistent with other records from central China that argue for tree dominated refugia during the LGM.

Assessing phenotypic variation and plasticity of endemic gastropods from thermal water refugia using complex morphometric techniques: A case study of Lake Pețea melanopsids.

Understanding the underlying reasons for phenotypic plasticity and resulting morphological disparity is one of the key topics of evolutionary research. The phenotypic plasticity of extant and fossil melanopsids has been widely documented. Yet millennial-resolution, well-dated records from small aquatic habitats harboring endemics are scarce. The thermal spring-fed Lake Pețea is an ice age refugia harboring a unique endemic warm-water fauna. Subfossil melanopsids display incredible morphological variability from smooth to keeled, elongated to ribbed, shouldered forms. Numerous morphotypes have been considered as individual taxa with a fluent succession from the smooth elongated to the ribbed, shouldered types. This study presents an extensive morphometric analysis of subfossil melanopsids (ca. 3500 specimens) derived from stratified samples with an independent chronology. The aim was to separate morphotypes for investigations of temporal morphological disparity. Our results challenge the widely accepted hypothesis that proposes the evolution of shouldered, compressed, ribbed shells through a two-step process from smooth elongated spindle-shaped shells. Instead, it suggests that the subfossil shells belong to two distinct taxa present throughout the available stratigraphic data. The main components of shape variation, shape globularity, and shell coiling seem allometry-related. Ribs, striation, and keels appear randomly. High-spired spindle-shaped forms were considered to represent specimens of Microcolpia daudebartii hazayi. Bulkier low-spired and shouldered specimens represent phenotypes of Mi. parreyssii parreyssii. The collective and random distribution of morphotypes from the early stages of the lake's history also refutes the idea of a continuous transformation of the elongated forms into compressed, shouldered ones. Rather points to multiple events and environmental stimuli triggering development. Melanopsids appear in Late Glacial horizons, with Theodoxus prevostianus preferring temperatures above 23°C which may indicate the subordinate presence of hot water microhabitats in cooler waters.

Hot spring oases in the periglacial desert as the Last Glacial Maximum refugia for temperate trees in Central Europe.

Northern glacial refugia are a hotly debated concept. The idea that many temperate organisms survived the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; ~26.5 to 19 thousand years) in several sites across central and northern Europe stems from phylogeographic analyses, yet direct fossil evidence has thus far been missing. Here, we present the first unequivocal proof that thermophilous trees such as oak (Quercus), linden (Tilia), and common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) survived the LGM in Central Europe. The persistence of the refugium was promoted by a steady influx of hydrothermal waters that locally maintained a humid and warm microclimate. We reconstructed the geological and palaeohydrological factors responsible for the emergence of hot springs during the LGM and argue that refugia of this type, allowing the long-term survival and rapid post-LGM dispersal of temperate elements, were not exceptional in the European periglacial zone.

Mapping climate adaptation corridors for biodiversity-A regional-scale case study in Central America.

Climate adaptation corridors are widely recognized as important for promoting biodiversity resilience under climate change. Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, but there have been no regional-scale analyses of potential climate adaptation corridors in Central America. We identified 2375 potential corridors throughout Central America that link lowland protected areas (≤ 500 m) with intact, high-elevation forests (≥ 1500 m) that represent potential climate change refugia. Whereas we found potential corridors in all Central American countries, potential corridors in Panama, Belize, and Honduras were most protected (medians = 64%, 49%, and 47%, respectively) and potential corridors in El Salvador were least protected (median = 10%). We also developed a corridor priority index based on the ecological characteristics and protected status of potential corridors and their associated start and end points. Compared to low- and medium-priority corridors, high-priority corridors (n = 160; top 7% of all corridors) were generally more protected, forested, and distributed across wider elevational gradients and more Key Biodiversity Areas, but also generally linked larger lowland protected areas to target areas that were larger, more protected, and spanned wider elevational gradients. For example, based on median values, high-priority corridors were 9% more protected and overlapped with 2-3 more Key Biodiversity Areas than low- and medium-priority corridors. Although high-elevation targets spanned considerably wider elevational gradients than lowland protected areas (medians = 695 vs. 142 m, respectively) and thus may be more likely to support refugia, they were considerably smaller than lowland protected areas (medians = 11 vs. 50 km2 respectively) and mostly unprotected (median = 4% protection). This initial, regional assessment can help prioritize locations for finer-scale research, conservation, and restoration activities in support of climate adaptation corridors throughout Central America and highlights the need for greater conservation of potential high-elevation refugia.

Distinct communities under the snow: describing characteristics of subnivium arthropod communities.

Arthropods are active during the winter in temperate regions. Many use the seasonal snowpack as a buffer against harsh ambient conditions and are active in a refugium known as the subnivium. While the use of the subnivium by arthropods is well established, far less is known about subnivium community composition, abundance, biomass, and diversity and how these characteristics compare with the community in the summer. Understanding subnivium communities is especially important given the observed and anticipated changes in snowpack depth and duration due to the changing climate. We compared subnivium arthropod communities with those active during the summer using pitfall trapping in northern New Hampshire. We found that compositions of ground-active arthropod communities in the subnivium differed from those in the summer. The subnivium arthropod community featured moderate levels of richness and other measures of diversity that tended to be lower than the summer community. More strikingly, the subnivium community was much lower in overall abundance and biomass. Interestingly, some arthropods were dominant in the subnivium but either rare or absent in summer collections. These putative "subnivium specialists" included the spider Cicurina brevis (Emerton 1890) (Araneae: Hahniidae) and 3 rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae): Arpedium cribratum Fauvel, 1878, Lesteva pallipes LeConte, 1863, and Porrhodites inflatus (Hatch, 1957). This study provides a detailed account of the subnivium arthropod community, establishes baseline information on arthropod communities in temperate forests of northeastern North America, and explores the idea of subnivium specialist taxa that are highly active in winter and might be especially vulnerable to climate change.

Survival in nunatak and peripheral glacial refugia of three alpine plant species is partly predicted by altitudinal segregation.

Mountain biota survived the Quaternary cold stages most probably in peripheral refugia and/or ice-free peaks within ice-sheets (nunataks). While survival in peripheral refugia has been broadly demonstrated, evidence for nunatak refugia is still scarce. We generated RADseq data from three mountain plant species occurring at different elevations in the southeastern European Alps to investigate the role of different glacial refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). We tested the following hypotheses. (i) The deep Piave Valley forms the deepest genetic split in the species distributed across it, delimiting two peripheral refugia. (ii) The montane to alpine species Campanula morettiana and Primula tyrolensis survived the LGM in peripheral refugia, while high-alpine to subnival Saxifraga facchinii likely survived in several nunatak refugia. (iii) The lower elevation species suffered a strong population decline during the LGM. By contrast, the higher elevation species shows long-term stability of population sizes due to survival on permanently ice-free peaks and small population sizes at present. We found peripheral refugia on both sides of the Piave Valley, which acted as a major genetic barrier. Demographic modelling confirmed nunatak survival not only for S. facchinii but also for montane to alpine C. morettiana. Altitudinal segregation influenced the species' demographic fluctuations, with the lower elevation species showing a significant population increase at the end of the LGM, and the higher elevation species either showing decrease towards the present or stable population sizes with a short bottleneck. Our results highlight the role of nunatak survival and species ecology in the demographic history of mountain species.

Influence of microclimate and forest management on bat species faced with global change.

Climate refugia, areas where climate is expected to remain relatively stable, can offer a near-term safe haven for species sensitive to warming temperatures and drought. Understanding the influence of temperature, moisture, and disturbance on sensitive species is critical during this time of rapid climate change. Coastal habitats can serve as important refugia. Many of these areas consist of working forestlands, and there is a growing recognition that conservation efforts worldwide must consider the habitat value of working lands, in addition to protected areas, to effectively manage large landscapes that support biodiversity. The sensitivity of forest bats to climate and habitat disturbance makes them a useful indicator taxon. We tested how microclimate and forest management influence habitat use for 13 species of insectivorous bats in a large climate refugium in a global biodiversity hotspot. We examined whether bat activity during the summer dry season is greater in forests where coastal fog provides moisture and more stable temperatures across both protected mature stands and those regularly logged. Acoustic monitoring was conducted at a landscape scale with 20 study sites, and generalized linear mixed models were used to examine the influence of habitat variables. Six species were positively associated with warmer nighttime temperature, and 5 species had a negative relationship with humidity or a positive relationship with climatic moisture deficit. Our results suggest that these mammals may have greater climate adaptive capacity than expected, and, for now, that habitat use may be more related to optimal foraging conditions than to avoidance of warming temperatures and drought. We also determined that 12 of the 13 regionally present bat species were regularly detected in commercial timberland stands. Because forest bats are highly mobile, forage over long distances, and frequently change roosts, the stewardship of working forests must be addressed to protect these species.

Influencia del microclima y el manejo forestal sobre especies de murciélagos ante el cambio global Resumen Los refugios climáticos, áreas en donde se espera que el clima permanezca relativamente estable, pueden ofrecer un santuario a corto plazo para las especies sensibles al aumento de temperaturas y la sequía. Es muy importante entender la influencia de la temperatura, la humedad y las perturbaciones sobre las especies sensibles durante estos tiempos de cambio climático repentino. Los hábitats costeros pueden funcionar como refugios importantes. Muchas de estas áreas consisten en bosques funcionales y cada vez hay más reconocimiento de que los esfuerzos mundiales de conservación deben considerar el valor del hábitat de los suelos funcionales, además de las áreas protegidas, para manejar de manera efectiva los extensos paisajes que mantienen a la biodiversidad. La sensibilidad de los murciélagos de los bosques ante las perturbaciones climáticas y de hábitat hace que sean un taxón indicador útil. Analizamos cómo los microclimas y el manejo forestal influyen sobre el uso de hábitat de 13 especies de murciélagos insectívoros en un refugio climático amplio dentro de un punto caliente de biodiversidad mundial. Examinamos si la actividad de los murciélagos durante la temporada seca de verano es mayor en los bosques en donde la niebla costera proporciona humedad y temperaturas más estables tanto en los árboles maduros como aquellos que son talados con regularidad. Realizamos el monitoreo acústico a escala de paisaje en 20 estudios de sitio y usamos modelos lineales mixtos generalizados para examinar la influencia de las variables del hábitat. Seis especies estuvieron asociadas positivamente con la temperatura nocturna más cálida y cinco especies tuvieron una relación negativa con la humedad o una relación positiva con el déficit climático de humedad. Nuestros resultados sugieren que estos mamíferos pueden tener una mayor capacidad de adaptación climática de lo que se pensaba y, por ahora, que el uso de hábitat puede estar más relacionado con las condiciones óptimas de forrajeo que con la evasión de las temperaturas elevadas y la sequía. También determinamos que 12 de las 13 especies con presencia regional fueron detectadas con regularidad en los puntos de tala comercial. Ya que los murciélagos del bosque tienden a moverse mucho, forrajear a lo largo de grandes distancias y con frecuencia cambiar de nido, debemos abordar la administración de los bosques funcionales para proteger a estas especies.

Climate velocities and species tracking in global mountain regions.

Mountain ranges contain high concentrations of endemic species and are indispensable refugia for lowland species that are facing anthropogenic climate change1,2. Forecasting biodiversity redistribution hinges on assessing whether species can track shifting isotherms as the climate warms3,4. However, a global analysis of the velocities of isotherm shifts along elevation gradients is hindered by the scarcity of weather stations in mountainous regions5. Here we address this issue by mapping the lapse rate of temperature (LRT) across mountain regions globally, both by using satellite data (SLRT) and by using the laws of thermodynamics to account for water vapour6 (that is, the moist adiabatic lapse rate (MALRT)). By dividing the rate of surface warming from 1971 to 2020 by either the SLRT or the MALRT, we provide maps of vertical isotherm shift velocities. We identify 17 mountain regions with exceptionally high vertical isotherm shift velocities (greater than 11.67 m per year for the SLRT; greater than 8.25 m per year for the MALRT), predominantly in dry areas but also in wet regions with shallow lapse rates; for example, northern Sumatra, the Brazilian highlands and southern Africa. By linking these velocities to the velocities of species range shifts, we report instances of close tracking in mountains with lower climate velocities. However, many species lag behind, suggesting that range shift dynamics would persist even if we managed to curb climate-change trajectories. Our findings are key for devising global conservation strategies, particularly in the 17 high-velocity mountain regions that we have identified.

Restoring spatiotemporal variability to enhance the capacity for dispersal-limited species to track climate change.

Climate refugia are areas where species can persist through climate change with little to no movement. Among the factors associated with climate refugia are high spatial heterogeneity, such that there is only a short distance between current and future optimal climates, as well as biotic or abiotic environmental factors that buffer against variability in time. However, these types of climate refugia may be declining due to anthropogenic homogenization of environments and degradation of environmental buffers. To quantify the potential for restoration of refugia-like environmental conditions to increase population persistence under climate change, we simulated a population's capacity to track their temperature over space and time given different levels of spatial and temporal variability in temperature. To determine how species traits affected the efficacy of restoring heterogeneity, we explored an array of values for species' dispersal ability, thermal tolerance, and fecundity. We found that species were more likely to persist in environments with higher spatial heterogeneity and lower environmental stochasticity. When simulating a management action that increased the spatial heterogeneity of a previously homogenized environment, species were more likely to persist through climate change, and population sizes were generally higher, but there was little effect with mild temperature change. The benefits of heterogeneity restoration were greatest for species with limited dispersal ability. In contrast, species with longer dispersal but lower fecundity were more likely to benefit from a reduction in environmental stochasticity than an increase in spatial heterogeneity. Our results suggest that restoring environments to refugia-like conditions could promote species' persistence under the influence of climate change in addition to conservation strategies such as assisted migration, corridors, and increased protection.