Markers of Low-Iron Status Are Associated with Female Athlete Triad Risk Factors.

PURPOSE: The Female Athlete Triad (Triad) is common in female athletes. The Triad is caused by low-energy availability (EA), which is often difficult to measure and has been postulated to be associated with low-iron status. Here, we explore whether markers of low-iron status may be associated with indicators of low EA including Triad risk factors. METHODS: A total of 239 female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletes completed preparticipation examinations that included Triad risk factors, medication/supplement use, diagnosis of anemia, and elected to complete dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry scan to measure bone mineral density. The association of markers of low iron (defined as self-report of iron supplementation and/or history of anemia) with each component of the Triad risk assessment score was assessed by stratifying low-iron status across different levels of Triad risk category. Differences across iron status groups were assessed using Fisher exact testing. RESULTS: Every component of the Triad risk assessment score excluding delayed menarche was associated with low-iron status. The proportion of women who reported low iron was 11.5% in the low-risk EA group compared with 50% in the moderate-risk and 66.7% in the high-risk EA groups (P = 0.02); respectively. These numbers were 11.6%, 25.0%, and 66.7% (P = 0.02) for body mass index; 9.7%, 16.7%, and 25.0% (P < 0.05) for oligomenorrhea; 10.3%, 45.5%, and 50.0% (P < 0.01) for bone mineral density; and 10.4%, 20.8%, and 30.8% (P = 0.03) for history of stress reaction or fracture. Lean/endurance athletes were more likely to have low-iron status than other athletes (15.5% vs 3.4%, P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Markers for low-iron status were associated with Triad risk factors. Our study suggests that female athletes with a history of anemia or iron supplementation may require further screening for low EA.

Serum Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor Levels Mirror Bone Mineral Density in Amenorrheic and Eumenorrheic Athletes.

Amenorrhea and osteoporosis are strongly associated in female athletes. Amenorrheic women show lower serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) than eumenorrheic women. BDNF is known to regulate bone tissue development and remodeling; thus, athletes with low serum BDNF levels may show low bone mass. This study investigated the associations between serum BDNF, estradiol, and bone mineral density (BMD) in female athletes. This study included 160 elite female athletes (21.7±4.3 years). Serum levels of BDNF and estradiol were in 195 blood samples obtained from 132 eumenorrheic athletes (EA) and 63 amenorrheic athletes (AA). BMD was measured in the radius, lumbar spine, pelvis, and legs using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. AA showed significantly lower serum BDNF levels than EA (p=0.017). Serum BDNF levels were positively and significantly associated with both serum estradiol levels (p=0.0004) and the BMD measured at all sites (all p<0.05). 10 AA received transdermal estrogen therapy, and serum BDNF levels were measured at baseline and 6 months after therapy. Hormone-treated AA demonstrated a significant increase in serum BDNF levels after 6 months (p=0.022). Thus, serum BDNF levels may be associated with decreased BMD and serve as an indicator of the therapeutic effect of estradiol supplementation in female athletes with osteoporosis.

Management of the female athlete triad.

The female athlete triad (FAT) is defined by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) as low energy availability (low EA), functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea and osteoporosis. In low EA, lutein dysfunction first develops, followed by anovulation and, subsequently, oligomenorrhea, leading to amenorrhea. Moreover, low estradiol concentrations due to amenorrhea decrease bone mineral density (BMD). In athletes with one of the factors of FAT, the risk of a stress fracture is 2.4-4.9 times higher and may increase the risk of fracture throughout the lifespan. Low EA is the starting point of FAT, and the FAT concept emphasizes the importance of energy intake that is commensurate with exercise energy expenditure in athletes. In amenorrheic athletes who undergo gynecological examination, it is important to appropriately evaluate whether the cause is low EA and to review exercise energy expenditure and energy intake. It remains difficult even for experts to calculate available energy using the ACSM definition formula when evaluating energy deficiency. Moreover, performing early FAT screening during teenage years and cooperation between the department of obstetrics and gynecology and sports dietitians are also issues. The aim of this paper is to review the management of FAT from the viewpoint of gynecologists.

Collegiate Athletic Trainers' Knowledge of the Female Athlete Triad and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport.

CONTEXT: The female athlete triad (Triad) and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) specify the consequences of energy imbalance. Athletic trainers (ATs) are positioned to identify athletes who are fueling themselves inadequately and experiencing related health and performance consequences. OBJECTIVE: To assess the knowledge of collegiate ATs about the Triad and RED-S and to examine variability in related screening and referral behaviors among National Collegiate Athletic Association divisions. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Collegiate athletic training departments. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: Head ATs at National Collegiate Athletic Association member institutions (n = 285, response rate = 33%). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): An electronic survey was administered. The number of Triad components that were correctly identified and screening and referral behaviors related to Triad components were measured. RESULTS: Nearly all respondents (98.61% [n = 281]) had heard of the Triad; a smaller proportion (32.98% [n = 94]) had heard of RED-S. On average, respondents correctly identified 2 components of the Triad. We observed differences by sex, with women correctly identifying more components than men ( U = 12.426, P = .003). More than half (59.93% [n = 163]) indicated that athletes at their institutions were screened for eating disorders. Nearly three-quarters (70.55% [n = 115]) of respondents indicated that all female athletes at their institutions were screened annually for menstrual dysfunction. More comprehensive referral behaviors for athletes identified as experiencing menstrual dysfunction or a bone injury (eg, athlete referred to a nutritionist, dietitian, or counselor) occurred at Division I institutions than at Division II and III institutions. CONCLUSIONS: Continuing education for ATs about the Triad and RED-S may encourage a more comprehensive approach to referral and screening after a diagnosis of menstrual dysfunction or bone-stress injury. Using institutional opportunities, such as preparticipation screening, for identifying components of the Triad or RED-S and specifying protocols for referring athletes who screen positive for 1 of these components should also be explored.

Current Status of the Female Athlete Triad: Update and Future Directions.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review provides an update on the primary clinical sequelae of the Female Athlete Triad. RECENT FINDINGS: Scientific advancements have contributed to improve understanding of Triad-related conditions, including leptin's role as a potential neuroendocrine link between energy status and reproductive function. Use of finite element analysis of HRpQCT imaging has provided a more accurate assessment of bone geometry and bone strength and may be clinically relevant. New perspectives aimed at developing and implementing a multi-disciplinary, personalized approach in the prevention and early treatment of triad-related symptoms are provided. The Female Athlete Triad is a multi-dimensional condition that affects active women across the lifespan. Energy availability impacts reproductive function and bone with implications for health and performance. Understanding the contributions of each individual component as well as their interconnected effects is necessary for progression and expansion of the Triad literature.

The IOC consensus statement: beyond the Female Athlete Triad--Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S).

Protecting the health of the athlete is a goal of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The IOC convened an expert panel to update the 2005 IOC Consensus Statement on the Female Athlete Triad. This Consensus Statement replaces the previous and provides guidelines to guide risk assessment, treatment and return-to-play decisions. The IOC expert working group introduces a broader, more comprehensive term for the condition previously known as 'Female Athlete Triad'. The term 'Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport' (RED-S), points to the complexity involved and the fact that male athletes are also affected. The syndrome of RED-S refers to impaired physiological function including, but not limited to, metabolic rate, menstrual function, bone health, immunity, protein synthesis, cardiovascular health caused by relative energy deficiency. The cause of this syndrome is energy deficiency relative to the balance between dietary energy intake and energy expenditure required for health and activities of daily living, growth and sporting activities. Psychological consequences can either precede RED-S or be the result of RED-S. The clinical phenomenon is not a 'triad' of the three entities of energy availability, menstrual function and bone health, but rather a syndrome that affects many aspects of physiological function, health and athletic performance. This Consensus Statement also recommends practical clinical models for the management of affected athletes. The 'Sport Risk Assessment and Return to Play Model' categorises the syndrome into three groups and translates these classifications into clinical recommendations.

Energy availability, menstrual dysfunction and bone health in sports; an overview of the female athlete triad.

INTRODUCTION: The female athlete triad (FAT) is a serious health-related problem that threatens women who exercise. This condition is an interrelated multifactorial syndrome which includes low energy availability, menstrual cycle disturbances and decreased bone mineral density. OBJECTIVE: To review the major components of the FAT and their relationships, as well as strategies for diagnosis and treatment. METHODS: Articles related to the topic were reviewed through PubMed and SportDiscus databases. RESULTS: Interrelationship between components of the FAT may result in clinical manifestations, including eating disorders, amenorrhea and osteoporosis. Clinical conditions are not always exhibited simultaneously. Prevention is important to minimize complications. Diagnosis and treatment is complicated and often must involve an interdisciplinary therapeutic approach. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding of the disease may be facilitated by a unified framework focusing on energy deficiency. Preventive or early interventions require to increase energy availability through a higher total energy intake or a decrease in energy expenditure trough excessive physical exercise. A healthy lifestyle, and support by parents and coaches should be included. Psychotherapy may be necessary when eating disorders are present.

Introducción: La tríada de la atleta femenina es un importante problema de salud que amenaza a las mujeres que practican ejercicio. Este trastorno constituye un síndrome multifactorial e interrelacionado que incluye una baja disponibilidad de energía, alteraciones del ciclo menstrual y disminución de la densidad mineral ósea. Objetivo: Revisar los componentes de la tríada de la atleta femenina y sus interacciones, así como las estrategias de diagnóstico y tratamiento. Métodos: Se revisaron artículos relacionados con el tema en las bases de datos Pubmed y Sportdiscus. Resultados: La interrelación entre los componentes de la tríada de la atleta femenina puede resultar en manifestaciones clínicas, que incluyen trastornos de la conducta alimentaria, amenorrea y osteoporosis. Estas manifestaciones no siempre se presentan de forma simultánea. La prevención es importante para minimizar las complicaciones. El diagnostico y el tratamiento son complicados y pueden requerir a menudo un abordaje terapéutico multidisciplinar. Conclusiones: El conocimiento de la enfermedad puede facilitarse por el desarrollo de un marco unificado centrado en la deficiencia de energía. Las intervenciones preventivas y tempranas requieren un incremento de la disponibilidad de energía a través de un mayor aporte energético o una reducción del gasto asociado a un ejercicio físico excesivo. Debe incluirse un estilo de vida saludable y el apoyo por parte de padres y entrenadores. La psicoterapia puede ser necesaria si se presentan trastornos alimentarios.

Disordered eating, menstrual disturbances, and low bone mineral density in dancers: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To assemble and synthesize the best evidence on the epidemiology, diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disordered eating, menstrual disturbances, and low bone mineral density in dancers. DATA SOURCES: Medline, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Embase, and other electronic databases were searched from 1966 to 2010 using key words such as "dance," "dancer," "dancing," "eating disorders," "menstruation disturbances," and "bone density." In addition, the reference lists of relevant studies were examined, specialized journals were hand-searched, and the websites of major dance associations were scanned for relevant information. STUDY SELECTION: Citations were screened for relevance using a priori criteria, and relevant studies were critically reviewed for scientific merit by the best evidence synthesis method. After 2748 abstracts were screened, 124 articles were reviewed, and 23 (18.5%) of these were accepted as scientifically admissible (representing 19 unique studies). DATA EXTRACTION: Data from accepted studies were abstracted into evidence tables relating to prevalence and associated factors; incidence and risk factors; diagnosis; and prevention of disordered eating, menstrual disturbances, and/or low bone mineral density in dancers. DATA SYNTHESIS: The scientifically admissible studies consisted of 13 (68%) cross-sectional studies and 6 (32%) cohort studies. Disordered eating and menstrual disturbances are common in dancers. The lifetime prevalence of any eating disorder was 50% in professional dancers, while the point prevalence ranged between 13.6% and 26.5% in young student dancers. In their first year of intensive dance training, 32% of university-level dancers developed a menstrual disturbance. The incidence of disordered eating and low bone mineral density in dancers is unknown. Several potential risk factors are suggested by the literature, but there is little compelling evidence for any of these. There is preliminary evidence that multifaceted sociocultural prevention strategies may help decrease the incidence of disordered eating. CONCLUSIONS: The dance medicine literature is heterogeneous. The best available evidence suggests that disordered eating, menstrual disturbances, and low bone mineral density are important health issues for dancers at all skill levels. Future research would benefit from clear and relevant research questions being addressed with appropriate study designs and better reporting of studies in line with current scientific standards.

The young female athlete.

Participation of adolescents and young women in strenuous sports activity may lead to various metabolic and psychological derangements of clinical relevance to the endocrinologist. The most common manifestations encountered in practice are primary and secondary amenorrhea, reduced bone mineral density and eating disorders. The occurrence of all three together has been named "the athletic triad". The underlying hormonal drivers that lead to some of these manifestations are the reduced leptin level as well as the persistent low grade stress response commonly observed in such females. "Exercise-related female reproductive dysfunction" (ERFRD), can possibly include short-term (infertility) and long-term (osteoporosis) consequences. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea, a manifestation of ERFRD in adolescence, is an integrated response to the combination of excessive physical and emotional stress, exercise, and/or reduced food intake characterized by decreased endogenous GNRH secretion. The primary aim of treating these athletes should be the prevention of the development of any component of the triad as well as the whole complex by educating athletes, trainers, parents and health care professionals about proper nutrition and safe training. The long term prognosis is good. However, significant long term morbidity may affect these young women later in life.

Modified activity-stress paradigm in an animal model of the female athlete triad.

The exercising woman with nutritional deficits and related menstrual irregularities is at risk of compromising long-term bone health, i.e., the female athlete triad. There is no animal model of the female athlete triad. The purpose of this study was to examine long-term energy restriction in voluntary wheel-running female rats on estrous cycling, bone mineral content, and leptin levels. Twelve female Sprague-Dawley rats (age 34 days) were fed ad libitum and given access to running wheels during an initial 14-wk period, providing baseline and age-related data. Daily collection included dietary intake, body weight, estrous cycling, and voluntary running distance. At 4 mo, rats were randomized into two groups, six restrict-fed rats (70% of ad libitum intake) and six rats continuing as ad libitum-fed controls. Energy intake, energy expenditure, and energy availability (energy intake - energy expenditure) were calculated for each animal. Serum estradiol and leptin concentrations were measured by RIA. Femoral and tibial bone mineral density and bone mineral content (BMC) were determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Restrict-fed rats exhibited a decrease in energy availability during Weight Loss and Anestrous phases (P = 0.002). Compared with controls after 12 wk, restrict-fed rats showed reduced concentrations of serum estradiol (P = 0.002) and leptin (P = 0.002), lower ovarian weight (P = 0.002), and decreased femoral (P = 0.041) and tibial (P = 0.05) BMC. Decreased energy availability resulted in anestrus and significant decreases in BMC, estrogen and leptin levels, and body weight. Finally, there is a critical level of energy availability to maintain estrous cycling.

Aspectos nutricionais e implicações do consumo energético insuficiente em adolescentes atletas / Nutritional aspects and implications of insuficient caloric intake in adolescents athletes

The proved relationship between nutrition and sports performance is specially important during adolescence. This is due to the higher nutritional intakes required for the growth and development of adolescents together with the characteristic energy expenditure in sports. This phase of life is very propitious to developing unhealthy nutrition habits, associated to a lack of knowledge about food consumption and nutrition. That is the reason why the role of nutritional orientation is so important for adolescent athletes. Their ideal nutrition should be adjusted to the competition periods, besides providing specially the adequate supply of liquids, proteins and energy. Insufficient energy consumption might have serious implications for these individuals, such as low height, delayed pubertal development, micronutrients deficiency, dehydration, menstrual irregularities, bone alterations, higher incidence of lesions and higher risk of developing eating disorders. Female athletes are more vulnerable to a simultaneous manifestation of eating disorders, amenorrhea and osteoporosis, the so-called female athlete triad. This syndrome is more frequent among those who practice sports that require a slim body and among those under tough influence and demand from their parents, coaches or even themselves. For this reason, the role of nutritional education is extremely important for health during adolescence, aiming at guaranteeing an adequate growth and development. It is also essential for a good sports performance through a balanced dietary intake and the acquisition of healthy nutrition habits that should remain in adult life

La relación comprobada entre alimentación y desempeño deportivo requiere una atención especial durante la adolescencia. Esto por que alas exigencias nutricionales aumentadas de esa fase del crecimiento y desarrollo intensos, se suman las necesidades energéticas de la actividad deportiva. Además, esta fase de la vida es muy vulnerable a la adopción de prácticas alimentares poco saludables, asociadas a grandes conocimiento sobre alimentación y nutrición. Por tanto, el papel de la orientación nutricional para atletas adolescentes es fundamental. La alimentación ideal debe ajustarse a las fases de la competición para garantizar especialmente el aporte adecuado de líquidos, proteínas y energía. Consumo energético insuficiente puede promover serias consecuencias en esta población, tales como: baja estatura, retardo puberal, deficiencia de micronutrientes, deshidratación, irregularidade menstrual, alteraciones óseas, mayor incidência de lesiones y mayor riesgo de surgimiento de disturbios alimentares. Atletas adolescentes de sexo femenino son más susceptibles a la manifestación simultánea de distúrbios alimentares, amenorrea y osteoporosis, llamada triade del atleta. Este síndrome es más frecuente en la practica de deportes que exigen un biótipo delgado y entre niñas sometidas a influencias y exigencias de los padres, entrenadores, o,incluso, por autoexigencia. Luego, el papel de la ducación nutricional es de suma importância para la salud durante la adolescencia como garantía para un crecimiento y desarrollo adecuado y un buen desempeño deportivo através no solamente de una alimentación equilibrada sino también del estímulo para aquisición de hábitos alimentares saludables que se conservarán en la vida adulta

A relação comprovada entre a alimentação e o desempenho esportivo merece destaque especial, na fase da adolescência. Tal fato, justifica-se pelas maiores necessidades nutricionais exigidas para o crescimento e desenvolvimento do adolescente que são somadas ao gasto energético próprio do esporte. Esse estágio de vida é muito vulnerável ao desenvolvimento de práticas alimentares pouco saudáveis, as quais se associam a um grande desconhecimento sobre alimentação e nutrição. Dessa forma, deve ser ressaltado o papel da orientação nutricional adequada para atletas adolescentes. A alimentação ideal destes deve ser adaptada às fases de competição, além de garantir em especial o suprimento adequado de líquidos, proteína e energia. O consumo energético insuficiente pode ter sérias implicações nesses indivíduos, como desenvolvimento de baixa estatura, atraso puberal, deficiência de micronutrientes, desidratação, irregularidade menstrual, alterações ósseas, maior incidência de lesões e maior risco de aparecimento de distúrbios alimentares. Atletas adolescentes do sexo feminino são mais suscetíveis à manifestação simultânea de distúrbios alimentares, amenorreia e osteoporose, a chamada tríade da atleta. Esta síndrome é mais comum entre as praticantes de esportes que exigem um biótipo caracterizado pela magreza e entre aquelas submetidas a fortes influências e exigências de pais, treinadores ou mesmo das próprias atletas. Logo, o papel da educação nutricional é de suma importância para a saúde durante a adolescência, no intuito de garantir um crescimento e desenvolvimento adequados, bem como um bom desempenho esportivo por meio de uma alimentação equilibrada e do estímulo à adoção de hábitos alimentares saudáveis e a manutenção destes na vida adulta