Emergency contraception: unresolved clinical, ethical and legal quandaries still linger.

Emergency contraception (EC) has been prescribed for decades, in order to lessen the risk of unplanned and unwanted pregnancy following unprotected intercourse, ordinary contraceptive failure, or rape. EC and the linked aspect of unintended pregnancy undoubtedly constitute highly relevant public health issues, in that they involve women's self-determination, reproductive freedom and family planning. Most European countries regulate EC access quite effectively, with solid information campaigns and supply mechanisms, based on various recommendations from international institutions herein examined. However, there is still disagreement on whether EC drugs should be available without a physician's prescription and on the reimbursement policies that should be implemented. In addition, the rights of health care professionals who object to EC on conscience grounds have been subject to considerable legal and ethical scrutiny, in light of their potential to damage patients who need EC drugs in a timely fashion. Ultimately, reproductive health, freedom and conscience-based refusal on the part of operators are elements that have proven extremely hard to reconcile; hence, it is essential to strike a reasonable balance for the sake of everyone's rights and well-being.

ACOG Committee Opinion No. 763 Summary: Ethical Considerations for the Care of Patients With Obesity.

Obesity is a medical condition that may be associated with bias among health care professionals, and this bias may result in disrespectful or inadequate care of patients with obesity. Obstetrician-gynecologists regularly care for patients with obesity and play an integral role in advocating for best practices in health care and optimizing health outcomes for patients with obesity. Obstetrician-gynecologists should be prepared to care for their patients with obesity in a nonjudgmental manner, being cognizant of the medical and societal implications of obesity. This Committee Opinion has been updated from its previous version to focus on obesity bias within the medical community and to provide practical guidance using people-first language instead of labels (ie, "patients with obesity" versus "obese patients") to help obstetrician-gynecologists deliver effective, compassionate medical care that meets the needs of patients with obesity.

ACOG Committee Opinion No. 763: Ethical Considerations for the Care of Patients With Obesity.

Obesity is a medical condition that may be associated with bias among health care professionals, and this bias may result in disrespectful or inadequate care of patients with obesity. Obstetrician-gynecologists regularly care for patients with obesity and play an integral role in advocating for best practices in health care and optimizing health outcomes for patients with obesity. Obstetrician-gynecologists should be prepared to care for their patients with obesity in a nonjudgmental manner, being cognizant of the medical and societal implications of obesity. This Committee Opinion has been updated from its previous version to focus on obesity bias within the medical community and to provide practical guidance using people-first language instead of labels (ie, "patients with obesity" versus "obese patients") to help obstetrician-gynecologists deliver effective, compassionate medical care that meets the needs of patients with obesity.

Views of Low-Income Women of Color at Increased Risk for Breast Cancer.

Individual risk assessment (IRA) for breast cancer may increase adherence to risk-appropriate screening and prevention measures. However, knowledge gaps exist regarding how best to communicate IRA results and support women at increased risk in future health care decisions, in part because patients conceptualize and make meaning of risk differently from the medical community. Better understanding the views of low-income women of color identified as being at increased risk for breast cancer can inform efforts to conduct IRA in an ethical and respectful manner. We conducted in-depth interviews with 13 low-income African American and Latina women who receive care at a federally qualified health center (FQHC) and had recently learned of their increased risk for breast cancer. These interviews explored their experience of the IRA process, their interpretation of what being at increased risk means, and their reactions to provider recommendations. Eight key themes were identified. We conclude with recommendations for the implementation of IRA for breast cancer in underserved primary care settings.

The responsibility of gynecologists and obstetricians in providing safe abortion services within the limits of the law.

Approximately 47 000 women die each year worldwide as a result of the complications of unsafe abortion, almost exclusively in low- and middle-income countries with restrictive abortion laws. In these countries, very few women who comply with the conditions imposed by the law can access safe abortion services in the public health system. The main obstacle is the unwillingness of gynecologists and obstetricians to provide abortion services by claiming conscientious objection, which is often used to hide their fear of the stigma associated with abortion. This happens because many colleagues are unaware that without access to legal services these women will resort to an unsafe abortion and its consequences. This violates the statement from FIGO's Committee for the Ethical Aspects of Human Reproduction and Women's Health, which asserts that: "The primary conscientious duty of obstetrician-gynecologists is at all times to treat, or provide benefit and prevent harm, to the patients for whose care they are responsible. Any conscientious objection to treating a patient is secondary to this primary duty."

"Without bodily autonomy we are not free": exploring women's concerns about future access to contraception following the 2016 US presidential election.

OBJECTIVE: Following the 2016US presidential election, social media posts and news stories amplified concerns about the potential for reduced access to contraception under the incoming administration and urged women to seek long-acting reversible contraception. We aimed to describe women's concerns about future access to contraception, in their own words. STUDY DESIGN: A social-media-based, anonymous online survey assessing thoughts and concerns about future access to contraception was distributed to reproductive-aged US women for 1 week in mid-January 2017. Participants who were concerned about future access to contraception could share their thoughts and feelings in an open-ended comments box. We qualitatively analyzed 449 written responses for content and themes, with the goal of characterizing key concerns. RESULTS: Women who provided written comments had a mean age of 28years; 85% were white, 88% had at least a college degree, and 93% identified as Democratic or Democratic-leaning. Women were highly concerned about future affordability of contraceptive methods due to potential loss of insurance, reduced insurance coverage for contraceptive methods and reduced access to low-cost care at Planned Parenthood. Many also worried about increased restrictions on abortion. Participants' concerns regarding access to contraception and abortion centered around themes of reproductive and bodily autonomy, which women described as fundamental rights. CONCLUSIONS: Women in this study expressed considerable fear and uncertainty regarding their future access to contraception and abortion following the 2016US presidential election. The potential for restricted access to affordable contraception and abortion was viewed as an unacceptable limitation on bodily autonomy. IMPLICATIONS: As the future of US health care policy is debated, many women are concerned about the impact of policy changes on their ability to access affordable contraception and abortion, which many view as essential to the preservation of bodily and reproductive autonomy.

Bioética e atendimento a mulheres vítimas de violência sexual: revisão de literatura / Bioética y atención a las mujeres víctimas de la violencia sexual: revisión de la literatura / Bioethics and support to women victims of sexual violence: literature review

Estudo com o objetivo de refletir, à luz da bioética do risco e proteção, os resultados de revisão de literatura sobre o atendimento a mulheres vítimas de violência sexual. Procedemos busca em periódicos indexados nas bases de dados da Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde e do Scopus, considerando publicações a partir do ano de 2003. A coleta de dados foi realizada em maio de 2013 utilizando os descritores: "violência sexual" ("sexual violence"), "assistência" ("assistance"), "services de saude da mulher" ("women’s health services"), "aborto" ("abortion"), "gravidez" ("pregnancy"). Foram recuperados 15 artigos. Os resultados foram agrupados em categorias temáticas: aspectos bioéticos relacionados ao acesso de mulheres a serviços de atendimento, e, aspectos bioéticos presentes no atendimento. A discussão ocorreu à luz da bioética do risco e proteção, evidenciando que o Estado deve garantir a universalidade do acesso às vítimas de violência sexual, e os profissionais de saúde devem estar preparados bioeticamente para este atendimento.

Estudio con el fin de reflejar, a la luz de la bioética del riesgo y la protección, los resultados de una revisión de la literatura sobre la atención a las mujeres víctimas de violencia sexual. Hemos llevado a cabo la búsqueda en revistas indexadas en las bases de datos de la Biblioteca Virtual en Salud y Scopus, teniendo en cuenta las publicaciones desde el año 2003. La obtención de los datos se realizó en mayo 2013 utilizandose las palabras clave: "violencia sexual" ("sexual violence"), "asistencia ( "assistence"), " servicios de salud para las mujeres" ( "women’s health services"), "aborto" ( "abortion"), "embarazo" ("pregnancy"). Se recuperaron 15 artículos. Los resultados fueron agrupados en categorías temáticas: aspectos bioéticos relacionados con el acceso de las mujeres a los servicios asistenciales y aspectos bioéticos en la asistencia. La discusión se llevó a cabo a la luz de la bioética del riesgo y la protección, evidenciando que el Estado debe garantizar un acceso universal a las víctimas de la violencia y los profesionales de la salud sexual deben tener preparo bioético para este tipo de atención a la salud.

Review article whose purpose is to reflect the light of bioethics risk and protection, the results of a literature review on the care of women victims of sexual violence. Proceeded to search for journals indexed in the database of the Virtual Health Library and Scopus considering publications since 2003. Data collection was conducted in May 2013 using the keywords: "sexual violence", "assistance", "services to women's health", "abortion", "pregnancy". We retrieved 15 publications. The results were grouped into two thematic categories: bioethical issues related to women's access to care services, and bioethical aspects present in attendance. The discussion took place in the light of bioethics risk and protection. The State must ensure universalide access to the victims of sexual violence and health professionals should be prepared for this bioethically care.

Conscientious objection to provision of legal abortion care.

Despite advances in scientific evidence, technologies, and human rights rationale for providing safe abortion, a broad range of cultural, regulatory, and health system barriers that deter access to abortion continues to exist in many countries. When conscientious objection to provision of abortion becomes one of these barriers, it can create risks to women's health and the enjoyment of their human rights. To eliminate this barrier, states should implement regulations for healthcare providers on how to invoke conscientious objection without jeopardizing women's access to safe, legal abortion services, especially with regard to timely referral for care and in emergency cases when referral is not possible. In addition, states should take all necessary measures to ensure that all women and adolescents have the means to prevent unintended pregnancies and to obtain safe abortion.

Legal and ethical standards for protecting women's human rights and the practice of conscientious objection in reproductive healthcare settings.

The practice of conscientious objection by healthcare workers is growing across the globe. It is most common in reproductive healthcare settings because of the religious or moral values placed on beliefs as to when life begins. It is often invoked in the context of abortion and contraceptive services, including the provision of information related to such services. Few states adequately regulate the practice, leading to denial of access to lawful reproductive healthcare services and violations of fundamental human rights. International ethical, health, and human rights standards have recently attempted to address these challenges by harmonizing the practice of conscientious objection with women's right to sexual and reproductive health services. FIGO ethical standards have had an important role in influencing human rights development in this area. They consider regulation of the unfettered use of conscientious objection essential to the realization of sexual and reproductive rights. Under international human rights law, states have a positive obligation to act in this regard. While ethical and human rights standards regarding this issue are growing, they do not yet exhaustively cover all the situations in which women's health and human rights are in jeopardy because of the practice. The present article sets forth existing ethical and human rights standards on the issue and illustrates the need for further development and clarity on balancing these rights and interests.

Ethical issues in human reproduction: Islamic perspectives.

Sexual and reproductive rights of women are essential components of human rights. They should never be transferred, renounced or denied for any reason based on race, religion, origin, political opinion or economic conditions. Women have the right to the highest attainable standard of health care for all aspects of their reproductive and sexual health (RSH). The principle of autonomy emphasizes the important role of women in the decision-making. Choices of women in reproduction, after providing evidence based information, should be respected. Risks, benefits and alternatives should be clearly explained before they make their free informed consent. Justice requires that all be treated with equal standard and have equal access to their health needs without discrimination or coercion. When resources are limited there is tension between the principle of justice and utility. Islamic perspectives of bioethics are influenced by primary Sharia namely the Holy Quran, authenticated traditions and saying of the Profit Mohamed (PBUH), Igmaa and Kias (analogy). All the contemporary ethical principles are emphasized in Islamic Shariaa, thus these principles should be observed when providing reproductive and sexual health services for Muslim families or communities. The Family is the basic unit in Islam. Safe motherhood, family planning, and quality reproductive and sexual health information and services and assisted reproductive technology are all encouraged within the frame of marriage. While the Shiaa sect permits egg donation, and surrogacy the Sunni sect forbids a third party contribution to reproduction. Harmful practices in RSH as FGM, child marriage and adolescent pregnancy are prohibited in Islam. Conscientious objection to treatment should not refrain the physician from appropriate referral.

Ethical guidelines and the prevention of abuse in healthcare.

OBJECTIVE: In obstetrical and gynaecological healthcare, patients often find themselves in a vulnerable position. Sensitive issues such as sexual and reproductive health are addressed and certain procedures can be experienced as abusive. According to research a lifetime prevalence of abuse in healthcare (AHC) can be assumed for 13-28% of female patients in the Nordic countries. In the present study we analyse the content of ethical documents for healthcare professionals within obstetrics and gynaecology in Sweden, in order to find out to what extent ethical guidelines consider issues that have shown to be related to the occurrence of AHC. STUDY DESIGN: We searched the literature to find empirical data on AHC. Guidelines for nurses, midwives and physicians were selected. After developing an analytical framework based on the empirical data the content of the ethical guidelines was analysed. RESULTS: The various ethical guidelines for staff working within obstetrics and gynaecology differ distinctively from each other regarding their content of issues that are related to AHC. Issues that were mostly disregarded were: considering the patient's perspective and the patients' possible experience of violence, considering power imbalances within healthcare, sexual misconduct, how to deal with other professional's ethical misconduct and how professionals relate to each other. We found the ethical guidelines of the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) and of the International Confederation of Midwives to be those which contained most of the issues that have empirically shown to be important in regard to AHC. CONCLUSION: While staff members from different professions may share responsibility for the same patient, their ethical guidelines vary considerably. To become a possible resource for prevention of AHC, we suggest that ethical guidelines in healthcare should be revised following empirical research on ethical conduct. As ethical guidelines cannot be effective by their existence only, we would like to initiate a discussion on the function and use of ethical guidelines in general and regarding AHC in particular. Being aware that ethical guidelines are only a part of ethics in healthcare, however, we envision a broader approach to the aim of preventing AHC, where research is encouraged on how a virtue ethics approach could be applied.

ACOG Committee Opinion No. 525: Health care for lesbians and bisexual women.

Lesbians and bisexual women encounter barriers to health care that include concerns about confidentiality and disclosure, discriminatory attitudes and treatment, limited access to health care and health insurance, and often a limited understanding as to what their health risks may be. Health care providers should offer quality care to all women regardless of sexual orientation. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists endorses equitable treatment for lesbians and bisexual women and their families, not only for direct health care needs, but also for indirect health care issues.

Back to basics: essential qualities of services for survivors of intimate partner violence.

Survivor voice is essential to effectively implement survivor-focused IPV (intimate partner violence) services. In this focus group study, domestic violence survivors (n = 30) shared detailed perspectives as service seekers and recipients, whereas national hotline advocates (n = 24) explored relationships between service providers and survivors based on their interactions with both. Four thematic categories related to enhancing IPV services emerged: providing empathy, supporting empowerment, individualizing care, and maintaining ethical boundaries. Advocates identified additional factors that interfered with quality services, including the following: inadequate organizational resources, staff burnout, lack of training, and poor integration with other community resources. Respectful, empowering relationships are the centerpiece for quality IPV services.

Dignity of women patients in health clinics.

This essay draws attention to violations of privacy and confidentiality in healthcare. It argues that such violations are experienced not only by rural women and beneficiaries of government health services but also by better-off women in private clinics in urban areas. It is possible that the occasional reports of such violations represent a fraction of the actual number of such incidents. There is an urgent need to recognise the problem and take corrective measures.

Atención integral a las mujeres de edad mediana / Integral care of middle-age women

Los objetivos de esta investigación fueron: identificar en el área de salud las características socio-culturales de las mujeres climatéricas y relacionarlos con la sintomatología de este periodo. Determinar la morbilidad oculta de enfermedades crónicas y de la esfera ginecológica en las mujeres de edad mediana para relacionarlo con la sintomatología del climaterio. Aplicar el tratamiento de sostén inicial (TSI) y evaluar sus respuestas. Se realizó un estudio prospectivo, descriptivo y aplicado en la consulta de Climaterio y Menopausia del municipio Cerro durante 6 años para la atención de la mujer en edad mediana, se confeccionó una planilla como historia clínica para la recogida de datos del examen físico clínico, completo; se precisa la edad en que aparece la menopausia, el nivel socioeconómico de las mujeres atendidas y se indica un primer tratamiento de sostén inicial (TSI) para educar y controlar los síntomas que aquejan las pacientes. Se logran buenos resultados con esta alternativa de tratamiento y solo un bajo por ciento necesitan utilizar el tratamiento hormonal de reemplazo (THR). Se inician después los estudios complementarios de acuerdo al método clínico inicial para precisar la morbilidad oculta de las mujeres de la edad mediana

The objectives of present research were: to identify in the health area the sociocultural features of the climacteric women and to relate them to the symptomatology of this period, to determine the hidden morbidity of chronic diseases and the gynecological sphere in middle-age women to relate it to climacterium symptomatology, to apply the initial support treatment (IST) and to assess its responses. A descriptive and prospective study was conducted and to apply it in the Climacterium and Menopause consultation of Cerro municipality during 6 years for care of middle-age woman and a form as medical record to collect data of the whole clinical physical examination; the age of menopause onset is specified, the socioeconomic level of women seen and a first initial support treatment (IST) is prescribed to educate and to control the symptoms suffered by patients. With this treatment alternative good results were achieved and only a low percentage needs to use replacement hormonotherapy (RHT). After, the complementary studies are started according to the initial clinical method to specify exactly the hidden morbidity of middle-age women