Hourglass Body Shape Ideal Scale and disordered eating.

Disordered eating research has long considered the negative consequences of internalizing sociocultural appearance ideals (e.g., thin ideal, muscular ideal). However, the implications of internalizing a curvy or "hourglass" body shape remains unclear. The Hourglass Body Shape Ideal Scale (HBSIS) is a new self-report questionnaire that was developed and evaluated to appropriately measure the extent women subscribe to an hourglass body shape ideal. The measure was administered to a community and undergraduate sample of women via two separate online studies. Study 1 (N = 916) provided support for the factor structure as well as the convergent and discriminant validity of the HBSIS. The HBSIS was correlated with measures of appearance orientation, overweight preoccupation, and disordered eating. HBSIS was associated with disordered eating even after controlling for age, BMI, thin ideal and muscular ideal internalization. Further, higher HBSIS scores were associated with increased likelihood of having clinical levels of disordered eating symptoms. There were no racial and ethnic group differences on HBSIS. Study 2 (N = 195) replicated the factor structure of Study 1, in addition to its convergent and discriminant validity. The HBSIS allows for more precise examination of appearance-ideal internalization, capturing a unique construct understudied within eating pathology literature.

An association between body image dissatisfaction and digit ratio among Chinese children and adolescents.

Body image dissatisfaction (BID) is a negative evaluation of personal physical characteristics, including dissatisfaction with body shape, gender, sexual organs, appearance and so forth, and it plays an important role in growth and development. The second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is recognized as a putative indicator of intra-uterine testosterone to estrogen ratio exposure, and it has been observed that higher levels of fetal testosterone exposure are associated with a lower 2D:4D. The present paper contributes to a better understanding of the biological underpinnings of BID by analyzing BID and the digit ratio (2D:4D). We found that the 2D:4D was positively related to appearance dissatisfaction in boys with first spermatorrhea, which means that low prenatal androgen exposure may increase boys' dissatisfaction with their appearance. In girls with breast development being lower than Tanner stage II, their 2D:4D was negatively related to their body shape dissatisfaction, which means that high prenatal androgen exposure may increase girls' dissatisfaction with their body shape. These results suggest that the prenatal androgen exposure level might play an important role in the body image dissatisfaction of the offspring.

Predictors of mothers' postpartum body dissatisfaction based on demographic and fertility factors.

BACKGROUND: There are fundamental and rapid changes in body shape during pregnancy, some of which persist for an extended time after delivery and may cause dissatisfaction with body shape. Therefore, we conducted this study to determine predictors of body dissatisfaction at six months postpartum based on demographic and fertility factors. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 300 women who referred to seven health centers affiliated with Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. The sampling was multistage and we collected data from a demographic and fertility questionnaire and Cooper's Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ-34). The independent t-test, Mann-Whitney U test, chi-square test, one-way ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis, Pearson correlation coefficient, and multiple linear regression were used for data analysis. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05. RESULTS: The mean age of participating women was 29.77 (standard deviation: 5.9) years. Body dissatisfaction had a statistically significant association with variables such as body mass index (BMI) at six months postpartum, gestational age, the receipt of information about body shape, spouse's views on the shape of a woman's body, and mode of delivery. These variables predicted 34% of body dissatisfaction based on multiple linear regression. CONCLUSION: Postpartum body dissatisfaction is related to a several variables. Paying attention to these variables will help to plan and improve postpartum counseling and educational programs.

Disordered eating attitudes and body shape concerns among North Indian Kathak dancers.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence and association between disordered eating attitudes and body shape concerns in a sample of North Indian Kathak dancers. METHOD: Participants were 206 Kathak female dancers and 235 healthy controls, ages 18-45 years. Participants completed questionnaires assessing demographics, disordered eating attitudes, and body dissatisfaction. Pearson correlations assessed the association between the disordered eating attitudes and body dissatisfaction, and binary logistic regression identified the risk of having a possible eating disorder. RESULTS: Kathak dancers reported significantly greater disordered eating attitudes compared to controls (12.1% vs. 5.9%, p = .023). Dancers endorsed greater dieting behaviors (M = 5.6 vs. 4.5, p = .031), and binge eating episodes (p < .001) relative to their counterparts. Body dissatisfaction was significantly positively correlated with disordered eating attitudes among the dancers (p < .001). Dancers with elevated body shape concerns were five times more likely to report disordered eating attitudes, relative to their peers (p < .001). DISCUSSION: Disordered eating attitudes and body shape concerns are prevalent among North Indian Kathak dancers. Future research should aim to develop targeted prevention and intervention programs that focus on reducing these behaviors and promoting a positive body image to mitigate the risk of disordered eating among this group.

State versus trait weight, shape, and eating concerns: Disentangling influence on eating behaviors among sexual minority women.

This study examined the relative influence of trait and state weight, shape, and eating concerns on dysregulated eating in the daily lives of sexual minority women with overweight and obesity. This study is a secondary analysis of data from an Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) study of 55 sexual minority women with overweight/obesity. Trait shape, weight, and eating concerns were assessed at baseline. For the following five days, participants used a smartphone to report state weight/shape concerns, overeating, and binge eating five times daily. Women who endorsed higher levels of trait weight, shape, and eating concerns at baseline reported more frequent state weight/shape concerns in daily life. Trait eating concerns were associated with higher odds of binge eating during EMA, but trait weight/shape concerns were unrelated to future dysregulated eating. In daily life, state weight/shape concerns was associated with greater risk for over/binge eating at the concurrent EMA prompt, the subsequent EMA prompt, and over the course of a full day, independent of trait concerns. State weight and shape concerns may play an important role in predicting dysregulated eating in daily life among sexual minority women of higher body weight.

Development and validation of the body shape scale (BOSHAS) for assessing body shape perception in African populations.

BACKGROUND: As a consequence of 'Western' acculturation, eating disorders and body image disturbances, such as fatness phobia and body dysmorphic disorders towards musculature and body shape, are emerging in Africa, with young people the most affected. It is therefore important to accurately assess perceptions of body shape. However, the existing body image assessment scales lack sufficient accuracy and validity testing to compare body shape perception across different African populations. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate the Body Shape Scale (BOSHAS) to evaluate body shape perceptions related body image disorders in African populations. METHODS: To develop the BOSHAS, anthropometric measures of 80 Cameroonians and 81 Senegalese (both sexes included; 40.1% females overall) were taken for three body shape criteria: somatotype components, body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio. Subjects were selected to cover a wide variability in body shape and were photographed in full face and profile positions. To validate the BOSHAS, the scale was administered twice (2 weeks apart) to 106 participants (aged 31.2 ± 12.6 years) to assess its reliability. In addition, a questionnaire measuring different aspects of body shape (e.g. musculature) was also administered (n = 597; aged 36.7 ± 15.6 years) to assess its convergent validity. RESULTS: The BOSHAS includes two sex-specific subscales of 10 photographs each. Most participants were able to repeat their BOSHAS preference order. Test-retest reliability was also consistent in estimating Current Body Shape (CBS), Desired Body Shape and Ideal Body Shape for participants and their partners. CBS was correlated with BMI, and different BOSHAS indices were consistent with declarations obtained by questionnaire. CONCLUSIONS: The BOSHAS is the first sex-specific scale of real African models photographed in face and profile, including large body shape variability. The validation protocol showed good validity and reliability for evaluating body shape perceptions and dissatisfaction of Africans.

Morphological asymmetry, sex and dominant somatotype among Polish youth.

The aim of the present study was to determine the level of morphological asymmetry among the general population of Polish youth as it correlates to sex and body type. The anthropometric characteristics of a group of 618 Polish youths (354 males aged 19.5 ± 1.2 years and 264 females aged 19.2 ± 1.2 years) were evaluated to assess their somatotypes using the Heath-Carter method. Body composition was calculated using the bioelectrical impedance method, and the absolute asymmetry index was used for comparisons between the right and left sides of the body. Significant differentiation was observed between all morphological characteristics (≤ 0.0001) and two body types (≤ 0.0001) among sexes. Females and males largely exhibited endomorphic and mesomorphic somatotypes, respectively. The findings demonstrated that dominant somatotype and sex both affect the level of fat mass asymmetry in the arms and legs. Furthermore, significant variations in the levels of asymmetry between sexes were observed in fat mass in both the arms and legs, with greater variation observed in the arms. In the case of muscle mass, no great differences were observed between men, women, or body types. This study provides new data on the morphological asymmetry of given body composition according to somatotype and sex. This study has potential medical implications, given that a large degree of inter-limb imbalance could be shown to have a negative effect on health; the findings of the present study would therefore be important for arriving at an understanding of how to prevent such imbalances, or to mitigate their negative effects.

Psychometric Analysis of the Body Shape Questionnaire in Mexican University Students. / Análisis psicométrico del Body Shape Questionnaire en universitarios mexicanos.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the psychometric properties, internal structure, and relationship with anthropometric indicators of the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) among Mexican university students according to the measurement invariance approach. METHODS: An instrumental study was carried out to assess the psychometric properties, validity, and reliability of the BSQ. The analysis of the measurement invariance was performed using the Least Squares Estimation, and weighted by adjusted variance and polychoric correlations after assessing different measurement models for BSQ in each group. The scores of the final version were correlated with anthropometric indicators by the Pearson correlation coefficient. RESULTS: As regards the dimensional analysis, all of the previous models for BSQ have favourable adjustment rates, although those with a single factor show more robust evidence. The configural invariance was accepted; suggesting that the one-dimensional structure is common for both men and women. However, 16-item factorial loadings were statistically different between the groups. Hence, they were discarded and an 18-item version (BSQ-18) was obtained, which is considered invariant as regards gender. In addition, there is a direct relationship between the scores of the BSQ-18 version and the body mass index, waist circumference, and fat percentage. Satisfactory indicators were found as regards stability. CONCLUSIONS: The BSQ-18 can be used with men and women, and has high reliability indicators to be conducted in clinical settings to assess eating disorders and obesity among university students.

Body shape concerns across racial and ethnic groups among adults in the United States: More similarities than differences.

This study evaluated the relationship between race/ethnicity and body shape concerns among adults in the U.S. and evaluated if this relationship varied by Body Mass Index (BMI) and gender. Data were collected from U.S. adults (N = 2,212) using a national online survey panel designed to approximate the US census data. Gender, age, race/ethnicity, BMI and body shape concerns (Body Shape Questionnaire) were assessed. Analysis of variance was utilized to evaluate the race/ethnicity and BSQ association and if the relationship varied by gender and BMI category. The sample (65 % White, 13 % Black/African American, 16 % Latino/Hispanic/Mexican American and 6 % Asian/Pacific Islander) was 50 % female; mean age of 44.2 years (SD = 16.8); BMI of 27.4 (SD = 6.7). A gender by BMI category interaction (p < .01) revealed no difference in BSQ scores by gender when BMI < 18, but higher BSQ scores among women for all other BMI groups. A main effect of race/ethnicity revealed BSQ scores were equally high across racial/ethnic groups, except individuals who identified as White (M = 42.0, SD = 19.7) reported higher BSQ than those identified as Asian/Pacific Islander (M = 37.4, SD = 17.4). Body shape concerns are common among US adults. Individuals of racial/ethnic minority status may experience similar gender- and BMI-related differences in body shape concerns as White individuals.

Time course of body recognition in women with weight and shape concerns assessed by steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP).

This study aimed to examine self-body recognition in women with high (HWSC) and low weight and shape concerns (LWSC). Thus, the detection rate, the reaction time and the perceptual threshold for recognizing one's own body in a morphed body were measured in n = 25 women with HWSC and n = 26 women with LWSC. Furthermore, by using steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs), neuronal correlates of body recognition were recorded. The perceptual threshold for recognizing one's own body was higher for women with HWSC in the case of a morph with a thinner body. No group differences emerged for morphs with obese or average-weight bodies. The SSVEP amplitudes did not differentiate between one's own and another body in either group. The results suggest that for women with HWSC, their negative body schemata might hamper recognition of their own body in a thinner morph. Otherwise, self-body recognition is similar in women with LWSC and HWSC.

Flower boys and muscled men: comparing South Korean and American male body ideals using cultural domain analysis.

Body image disturbance and eating disorders are rising all over the world. However, little is known about experiences of body image in men across cultural groups, and measurement tools often fail to account for the profound ways in which culture and gender can affect these data. An American cultural model of the ideal male body was compared with that of South Koreans using cultural domain analysis and residual agreement analysis. Cultural domain analysis gives researchers the ability to systematically study cultural models based on informants' emic understanding of phenomena; residual agreement analysis evaluates the patterns of agreement in disagreement with a larger cultural model. This study shows that Americans and South Koreans often overlap in their assessments of the desirability of male bodily features; however, they also strongly endorse many differing features, as well as similar features for different cultural reasons. For example, Americans endorse muscularity because it indexes physical prowess and health; South Koreans only sometimes endorse muscularity, mainly as an aesthetic choice. As a result, psychometric tools for measuring body dissatisfaction that are uncritically adopted for use in cross-cultural research may miss important information affecting the validity of findings and the efficacy of prevention campaigns and treatment plans.

Body shape in inpatients with severe anorexia nervosa.

BACKGROUND: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a severe mental disorder. Body shape disturbances are key in the development and maintenance of AN. Only few data are available on inpatients with life-threatening AN. Therefore, we aimed to investigate if body shape difficulties-with a focus on both body checking and avoidance-could improve during hospitalization in both subtypes of AN and to ascertain eventual associations between body shape concerns upon admission and clinical outcome. METHODS: Upon hospital admission and end of treatment (EOT), 139 inpatients with AN completed Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ), Body Checking Questionnaire (BCQ), and Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ) in addition to measures of eating and general psychopathology. RESULTS: Patients with severe AN reported improved BSQ and BIAQ scores at EOT while BCQ did not significantly change. Diagnostic subtypes differed only in baseline BSQ scores and had an impact on the improvement in BSQ at EOT. Baseline BCQ was associated with patients' clinical improvement at EOT, even after controlling for age, duration of illness, Body Mass Index, depression, and anxiety scores. CONCLUSIONS: Data on body shape concerns and their trajectory during hospitalization for severe AN are lacking; our findings provide support to the effectiveness of hospitalization in improving body shape concerns and body avoidance, but not body checking. Also, baseline body shape concerns (especially body checking) impacted on clinical improvement. Future research is needed to identify treatments that could further improve the therapeutic approach to severe patients of AN in the acute setting.

Reactions to ideal body shapes.

Difficult-to-attain beauty standards that are promulgated by the media could contribute to body dissatisfaction, but their potential impact upon body image remains unclear. The present study examined reactions to thin-ideal and muscular-ideal images, and examined the effects of ideal image exposure on preferred body shape and time spent deliberating about ideal shape. In a 2 × 2 experimental design, 200 Internet users completed the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10) and were randomly assigned to view idealistic body images or houses (and rated them on semantic differential dimensions). Females viewed thin ideal images and males viewed muscular ideal images, while the control groups viewed images of houses. Between group measures analysis of variance revealed women reacted negatively to thinspirational images. Women were more driven for thinness and idealized a thinner shape for the female body than men. Psychologically distressed participants had a stronger drive for thinness and greater body dissatisfaction compared to low-distress participants. In addition, although beauty ideal imagery had no significant impact on males, females spent more time in choosing ideal body figure. Viewing thin bodies for females created a trend toward desiring a slimmer figure, as well as increased preoccupation with size as they spent more time deliberating over a photorealistic figure rating scale. Therefore, exposure to thinspiration promotes dissatisfaction with self and leads women to dwell more upon their body image.

Heart rate variability in middle-aged adults: Use of Sasang typology to distinguish individuals susceptible to stress.

While stress is known to cause many diseases, there is no established method to determine individuals vulnerable to stress. Sasang typology categorizes humans into four Sasang types (So-Eum, Tae-Eum, So-Yang, and Tae-Yang), which have unique pathophysiologies because of their differential susceptibilities to specific stimuli, including stress. The purpose of this study was to determine if Sasang typology can be used identify individuals who are vulnerable to stress by evaluation of heart rate variability (HRV).This was a cross-sectional study. A total of 399 healthy men and women aged 30 to 49 years were recruited. Physical examinations for stress included HRV measurement and blood tests. The subjects also completed questionnaires about psychological stress, self-awareness, and lifestyle. HRV was analyzed using frequency-domain analysis. Subjects were divided into So-Eum (SE) and non-So-Eum (non-SE) groups according to their diagnosis.The weight and body mass index in the SE group were significantly lower than those in the non-SE group (both, P = .000). There were no significant between-group differences in any other demographic variables. In HRV analysis, the normalized high frequency (nHF) was higher (P = .008) while the normalized low frequency (nLF; P = .008) and LF:HF ratio (LF/HF; P = .002) were lower in the SE group than in the non-SE group.Although there was no difference in variables affecting HRV, HRV values were significantly different between groups. The LF/HF value for the SE group was at the lower limit of the normal range, although there were no associated clinical problems. These findings suggest that individuals with the SE type are more susceptible to stress than those with the other types. Thus, middle-aged individuals who are vulnerable to stress can be identified using Sasang typology.

Muscle Talk Online and Impression Formation Based on Body Type: Comparisons Between Asian American and Caucasian American Males.

This study aimed to investigate how individuals form impressions about the self-esteem and life satisfaction of a male who engages in muscle talk on Facebook. The study examined (a) how a target's body build and peer-generated comments influence observers' impression of him, and (b) how such influences might be moderated by the cultural backgrounds of observers (Asian Americans and European Americans). A mock-up Facebook profile page was created in which two factors were manipulated: the target's body build (muscular, average, and overweight) and peer-generated messages (muscle encouraging and muscle discouraging), creating six different conditions. Male college students ( N = 508) were randomly assigned to one of the conditions. After viewing a mock-up Facebook page online, participants completed an online questionnaire assessing their impressions of the target's self-esteem and life satisfaction. Results showed that a muscular target was perceived as possessing higher levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction. Observers rated the target as having higher self-esteem when the target received muscle-encouraging messages than when the target received muscle-discouraging messages. No cultural differences were identified. Findings suggest the existence of weight bias when forming psychological impressions of others online. Findings also confirmed the important role of peer-generated messages in the impression formation process online.

Weight and Shape Concern Impacts Weight Gain Prevention in the SNAP Trial: Implications for Tailoring Intervention Delivery.

OBJECTIVE: The Study of Novel Approaches to Weight Gain Prevention (SNAP) trial demonstrated that two self-regulatory interventions prevented weight gain in young adults. Weight and shape concern (WSC) at baseline was evaluated as a moderator of weight outcomes at 24 months. METHODS: Young adults (n = 599) were randomized to self-regulation with small changes (to create 200 kcal/day deficit), self-regulation with large changes (to facilitate preemptive weight loss of 5-10 lb), or self-guided control. WSC was assessed by using one item from the Eating Disorders Assessment. ANOVA was used to examine whether the association between baseline level of WSC and percent weight change over 24 months differed across treatment conditions. RESULTS: Approximately 22% of participants reported high WSC (37% moderate; 41% low). WSC and treatment condition interacted to influence weight change at 24 months (P = 0.03). Individuals with high WSC gained weight in the large changes group (WSC least squares means ± SE, high: + 0.73% ± 1.19%; moderate: -2.74% ± 0.84%; low: -2.41% ± 0.79%). The small changes condition was particularly effective for those with high WSC (high WSC: -2.49% ± 1.16%; moderate: -0.60% ± 0.88%; low: -0.71% ± 0.80%). WSC did not impact weight change among control participants. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with high WSC may benefit from a small-changes approach to weight gain prevention. These findings indicate WSC may be used to match individuals to weight gain prevention treatment conditions.

Body Image Satisfaction as a Physical Activity Indicator in University Students.

OBJECTIVE: We examined the association of body image satisfaction (BIS) with physical activity (PA) in university athletes and non-athletes from northern Mexico. METHODS: In a non-probability cross-sectional study, 294 participants (51% male, 41% athletes; 18-35 years old) completed 2 self-administered questionnaires to evaluate BIS and PA. We categorized somatotypes (endomorphy-mesomorphy-ectomorphy) by international standardized anthropometry. Data analysis included the Mann-Whitney U test, χ2test, Kendall's Tau-b correlation, binary logistic regression analysis, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. RESULTS: Self-perceived sports abilities and desirable body shape predicted 30% of sports participation in students, whereas an endomorphic shape (<5.4 units) and being male predicted 15.4% of sports participation. CONCLUSIONS: BIS was a reliable indicator of sports participation among these university students.

Validation of the Spanish version of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) among males: Confirmatory factor analysis.

Drive for Muscularity (DM) has been shown to be a relevant construct for measuring and understanding male body image. For this reason, it is important to have reliable and valid instruments with which to measure DM, and to date no such instruments exist in Spain. This study analyzes the psychometric and structural properties of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) in a sample of Spanish adolescent males (N=212), with the aim of studying the structural validity of the scale by using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), as well as analyzing the internal consistency and construct (convergent and discriminant) and concurrent validity of the instrument. After testing three models, results indicated that the best structure was a two-dimensional model, with the factors of muscularity-oriented body image (MBI) and muscularity behavior (MB). The scale showed good internal consistency (α=.90) and adequate construct validity. Furthermore, significant associations were found between DM and increased difficulties in emotional regulation (rho=.37) and low self-esteem (rho=-.19). Findings suggest that the two-factor structure may be used when assessing drive for muscularity among adolescent males in Spain.

Heavy Testosterone Use Among Bodybuilders: An Uncommon Cohort of Illicit Substance Users.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and characterize patterns of use among a contemporary cohort of current anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) users. PATIENTS AND METHODS: An anonymous, self-administered, 49-item questionnaire was posted on message boards of Internet websites popular among AAS users and administered via SurveyMonkey from February 1, 2015, to June 1, 2015. Thirty-seven questions were analyzed for this study. RESULTS: A total of 231 male respondents met the inclusion criteria. Most were white, were older than 25 years, were employed with above average income, and had received a formal education beyond high school. Ninety-three percent began using AAS after the age of 18 years, and 81% reported using 400 mg or more of testosterone per week. Factors associated with longer duration of use (>5 years) included higher incomes (≥$75,000, P=.003), increased testosterone dosages (>600 mg per week, P=.007), older age (≥35 years, P<.001), being married (P<.001), and being self-employed (P<.001). The Internet was the most common source of testosterone (53%). Ninety-three percent used at least one additional performance-enhancing drug. Seventy-seven percent had routine laboratory tests performed, and 38% reported laboratory abnormalities at some point. Nearly all experienced subjective adverse effects while using and not using testosterone. Fifty-three percent reported use of other illegal substances, most commonly (90%) beginning before AAS initiation. Ten percent had a criminal conviction, 91% of which preceded AAS use. Fifty percent were felonies. CONCLUSION: The population of AAS users is disparate from that of other drugs of abuse. Laboratory test abnormalities and adverse effects are common and should be taken into account when counseling patients who may be using AASs.