Phytotoxicity testing of diesel-contaminated water using Petunia grandiflora Juss. Mix F1 and Marigold-Nemo Mix (Tagetes patula L.).

Tagetes patula (marigold) and Petunia grandiflora (petunia) have been shown to exhibit potential in phytoremediation of environmental pollutants including heavy metals and textile dyes. To investigate their phytoremediation potential of diesel, it was necessary to evaluate diesel phytotoxicity of these two ornamental plants. Marigold and petunia seeds were incubated, for 10 and 15 days, respectively, in deionised water contaminated with 0 to 4%, v/v, diesel in Petri dishes in a growth room with continuous lighting at 25 °C. It was found that as far as seed germination was concerned, petunia was less sensitive than marigold to 4% diesel in water. In contrast, petunia exhibited poorer seedling root growth than marigold in the presence of diesel contamination. This finding of differential sensitivity of these two ornamental plants to diesel-contaminated water during germination and seedling growth has not been reported before. Therefore, the implications of phytotoxicity evaluation and comparison between different species or genotypes of plants at both seed germination and postgermination seedling growth should both be taken into consideration in screening tolerant plants for phytoremediation.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi enhance the copper tolerance of Tagetes patula through the sorption and barrier mechanisms of intraradical hyphae.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are widespread soil fungi that can form endosymbiotic structures with the root systems of most plants and can improve the tolerance of host plants to heavy metals. In the present study, we investigated the effects of AMF (Glomus coronatum) inoculation on the tolerance of Tagetes patula L. to Cu. Almost all of the non-mycorrhizal plants exposed to 100 µM Cu died after 3 d, whereas phytotoxicity was only observed in mycorrhizal plants that were exposed to Cu concentrations greater than 100 µM. Analysing the dynamic accumulation of Cu indicated that, after 7 d of Cu exposure, less Cu was absorbed or accumulated by mycorrhizal plants than by control plants, and significantly less Cu was translocated to the shoots. Meanwhile, analysing the root morphology, the integrity of the root plasma membranes, the photosynthesis rate, and the content of essential elements of plants growing in cultures with 50 µM Cu revealed that AMF inoculation markedly alleviated the toxic effects of Cu stress on root system activity, photosynthesis rate, and mineral nutrient accumulation. In addition, to understand the Cu allocation, an energy spectrum analysis of Cu content at the transverse section of root tips was conducted and subsequently provided direct evidence that intraradical hyphae at the root endodermis could selectively immobilise large amounts of Cu. Indeed, the sorption and barrier mechanisms of AMF hyphae reduce Cu toxicity in the roots of T. patula and eventually enhance the plants' Cu tolerance.

The response of marigold (Tagetes erecta Linn.) to ozone: impacts on plant growth and leaf physiology.

Progressively increasing ozone (O3) concentrations pose a potential threat to the value of marigold (Tagetes erecta Linn.), a plant widely used in urban landscaping. The response of marigold to elevated O3 has been reported earlier, but the mechanisms underlying the O3 effect have not been clearly elucidated. In the present study, we exposed marigold "Moonsong Deep Orange" plants to elevated O3, including ambient non-filtered air (NF) plus 60 ppb (NF+60) and 120 ppb (NF+120) O3, to assess visible injury and the possible physiological consequences of this pollutant. Yellow lesions appeared after 4 days under NF+120 treatment and 12 days under NF+60 treatment, with 85.6% and 36.8% of the leaves being injured at harvest time, respectively. Compared with NF, NF+60 inhibited leaf photosynthesis, stem-diameter growth, and biomass production significantly, while the parameters were decreased more by NF+120. Although the stomatal conductance decreased under elevated O3 exposure, the O3 flux into leaves increased by 28.0-104.8% under NF+60 treatment and 57.5-145.6% under NF+120 treatment. The total ascorbic acid (ASA) content increased due to elevated O3 exposure, while the reduced ASA content did not, resulting in a decreased ratio of reduced to total ASA. A lower level of jasmonic acid (JA) was observed under elevated O3 exposure. In conclusion, the impacts of elevated O3 on marigold plants may be ascribed to increased O3 flux into leaves and reduced protective capacity of leaves to convert oxidized to reduced ASA and synthesize endogenous JA.

Auxin effects on Pb phytoextraction from polluted soils by Tegetes minuta L. and Bidens pilosa L.: Extractive power of their root exudates.

The principal impediment for Pb uptake by plants is the Casparian strip in roots. It prevents metals reaching the xylem, thereby hampering translocation to the aerial organs. In the root apices, young root cells have thin cell walls and the Casparian strip is not completely developed, which could facilitate Pb uptake by roots at these vulnerable points. However, as the phytotoxic effects of Pb reduce root growth and enhance suberization, entry of Pb into the plant is avoided. We propose that the application of root growth promotors could be an important complement in the phytoextraction of Pb from polluted soils, due to their effects on produced biomass, Pb toxicity, and root exudate production. A greenhouse experiment was carried on to evaluate the auxin application effect on the Pb uptake of Bidens pilosa and Tagetes minuta. These species were sensitive to auxins, but the phytotoxic effect of Pb was not reversed by this treatment. Root exudates capable of extracting Pb were produced only when the species were grown in highly polluted soils, indicating a behavioral response to Pb exposure which is desirable for phytoremediation.

Uptake and translocation of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) in two ornamental plants and dissipation in soil.

Pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the phytoremediation of B[a]P contaminated soil using two ornamental plants (Tagetes patula and Mirabilis jalapa). The results showed that the dry biomass of two plants was increased at low B[a]P contaminated soil and then inhibited with increasing B[a]P concentrations. It exhibited a significantly positive linear relationship between B[a]P absorption in roots, stems, leaves and shoots of the tested plants and the concentration of B[a]P in soils (P<0.01). Meanwhile, the contents of B[a]P in different tissues of the plants increased with growing time. After planting T. patula and M. jalapa, plant-promoted biodegradation of B[a]P was account for 79.5-99.8% and 71.1-99.9%, respectively, whereas the amount of B[a]P dissipation enhancement was only 0.2-20.5% and 0.1-28.9%, respectively. Moreover, low bioaccumulation factor (BF) and translocation factor (TF) values indicated that T. patula and M. jalapa took up B[a]P from contaminated soil and transferred them to the aerial parts with low efficiency. The B[a]P removal rates in rhizosphere soils at different growing stages of T. patula and M. jalapa were 2.7-26.8% and 0.4%-33.9%, respectively, higher than those of non-rhizopshere soils. Therefore, the presence of T. patula and M. jalapa roots was effective in promoting the phytoremediation of B[a]P contaminated soils.

Involvement of NO and ROS in sulfur dioxide induced guard cells apoptosis in Tagetes erecta.

Both nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) are very important signal molecules, but the roles they play in signal transduction of sulfur dioxide (SO2) induced toxicities on ornamental plants is not clear. In this study, the functions of NO and ROS in SO2-induced death of lower epidermal guard cells in ornamental plant Tagetes erecta were investigated. The results showed that SO2 derivatives (0.4-4.0 mmol L(-1) of final concentrations) could reduce the guard cells' viability and increase their death rates in a dose-dependent manner. Meanwhile, the significant increase of cellular NO, ROS, and Ca(2+) levels (P<0.05) and typical apoptosis features including nucleus condensation, nucleus break and nucleus fragmentation were observed. However, exposure to 2.0 mmol L(-1) of SO2 derivatives combined with either NO antagonists (NO scavenger c-PTIO; nitrate reductase inhibitor NaN3; NO synthase inhibitor L-NAME), ROS scavenger (AsA or CAT) or Ca(2+) antagonists (Ca(2+) scavenger EGTA or plasma membrane Ca(2+) channel blocker LaCl3) can effectively block SO2-induced guard cells death and corresponding increase of NO, ROS and Ca(2+) levels. In addition, addition of L-NAME or AsA in 2.0 mmol L(-1) of SO2 derivatives led to significant decrease in the levels of NO, ROS and Ca(2+), whereas addition of LaCl3 in them just resulted in the decrease of Ca(2+) levels, hardly making effects on NO and ROS levels. It was concluded that NO and ROS were involved in the apoptosis induced by SO2 in T. erecta, which regulated the cell apoptosis at the upstream of Ca(2+).

The defense potential of glutathione-ascorbate dependent detoxification pathway to sulfur dioxide exposure in Tagetes erecta.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) exposure is associated with increased risk of various damages to plants. However, little is known about the defense response in ornamental plants. In this study, an artificial fumigation protocol was carried out to study the defense potential of the glutathione (GSH)-ascorbate (AsA) dependent detoxification pathway to SO2 exposure in Tagetes erecta. The results show that when the plants were exposed to different doses of SO2 (0, 15, 30, 50 or 80 mg m(-3)) for different times (6, 12, 18, 24 or 33 h), SO2 induced oxidative stress was confirmed by the increased hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MDA) and relative conductivity of membrane (RC) in a dose-dependent manner for different exposure times. However, the increased levels for H2O2, MDA and RC were not significant vis-a-vis the control when SO2 doses and exposure times were lower than 15 mg m(-3)/33 h, 30 mg m(-3)/24 h or 50 mg m(-3)/12 h (p>0.05). The results could be explained by the increases in the content of reduced form of glutathione (GSH), total glutathione (TGSH), ascorbate (AsA), ratio of GSH/GSSG (oxidized form of glutathione), activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferases (GST). On the other hand, exposure to higher doses of SO2 and longer exposure times, the values of the GSH-AsA dependent antioxidative indices decreased significantly (p<0.01), manifested by increased levels of H2O2. Furthermore, the levels of H2O2, MDA and RC varied little when SO2 doses and exposure times reached a 'critical' value (50 mg m(-3)/24 h). The defense ability of T. erecta to SO2 reached nearly extremity. To summarize, the response of T. erecta to elevated SO2 was related to higher H2O2 levels. GSH-AsA dependent detoxification pathway played an important role in against SO2-induced toxicity, although the defense response could not sufficiently alleviate oxidative damage when SO2 doses and exposure times reached critical value.

An efficient plant regeneration and Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation of Tagetes erecta.

Tagetes erecta, L. an asteraceous plant of industrial and medicinal value, contains important compounds like pyrethrins, thiophenes and lutein, possessing immense potential for insecticidal, nematicidal and nutraceutical activities. Considering the importance and demand for these natural compounds, genetic manipulation of this crop for better productivity of secondary metabolites holds great significance. A rapid and reproducible direct regeneration and genetic transformation system is the prerequisite for genetic manipulation of any crop. This paper elucidates the establishment of an efficient direct regeneration and transformation protocol of T. erecta using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Investigation of the effects of different types of explants (Hypocotyls, cotyledonary leaves, rachis and leaf sections) and different BAP and GA3 combinations on the regeneration frequency of T. erecta suggested that the best regeneration frequency (66 %) with an average of 5.08 ± 0.09 shoot buds/explant was observed from hypocotyl explants cultured on media containing 1.5 mg/l BAP and 5 mg/l GA3. The transformation protocol was established using A. tumefaciens strain LBA4404, containing the binary vector pBI121, along with the gusA reporter gene with intron under the transcriptional control of the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMV) 35S promoter and the neomycin phosphotransferase II (nptII) gene as a kanamycin-resistant plant-selectable marker. Various parameters like optimization of kanamycin concentration (200 mg/l) for selection, standardization of cocultivation time (45 min) and acetosyringone concentration (150 µM) for obtaining higher transformation frequency were established using hypocotyl explants. The selected putative transgenic shoots were subsequently rooted on the Murashige and Skoog medium and transferred to the green house successfully. The plants were characterised by analysing the gus expression, amplification of 600 bp npt II fragment and Southern blot hybridization using the PCR-amplified gusA fragment as probe. The standardised protocol established during the study will open new vistas for genetic manipulation and introduction of desired genes for genetic improvement of T. erecta.

Influence of heavy metal rich tannery sludge on soil enzymes vis-à-vis growth of Tagetes minuta, an essential oil bearing crop.

Tannery sludge is available in plenty and is hazardous to environment as well as plant and animal life. It is very important to manage the tannery sludge in an environmentally sound manner. The aim of this study was to assess the physico-chemical, microbial and biochemical properties of soil treated with different levels of sludge. In this study, Tagetes minuta an essential oil bearing crop was grown in two different textured soils treated with different levels of tannery sludge. Application of tannery sludge (TS) increased the growth and oil yield of plant and also the activity of urease and soil microbial biomass nitrogen (SMBN) when applied in 50:50 combinations of soil:sludge. The crop performed well in coarse soil with a soil:sludge ratio of 50:50. High concentration of tannery sludge exhibited inhibitory effect on SMBN and urease activity. Acid/alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenase and soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) increased as the sludge concentration increased in soil. This may be due to high organic matter present in tannery sludge. Roots accumulated more metal than the shoot. No detectable amount of metal was found in oil of T.minuta. To test the relation between 20 characters principal component analysis (PCA) was performed. PCA analysis indicates that cation exchange capacity (CEC), SMBC, dehydrogenase, acid and alkaline phosphatases were grouped in group 1. SMBN, urease and cis-ocimene content in oil were in group 2 whereas biomasss, chlorophyll a, limonene, Z and E-tagetone were in group 3. PC-I contributes 54% of total variance and PC-II contributes 38% of the total variance. The results concluded that T.minuta can mitigate metal toxicity by root absorption. Microbial activity and biomass of plant was higher in coarse soil with TS than fine soil with TS.

The effect of phosphate bio-fertilizer (Barvar-2) on the growth of marigold.

The present study was conducted to study the individual and combined effect of bio-fertilizer (Barvar-2) and chemical phosphate fertilizer on the floral quality of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.). A factorial experiment was carried out which consisted of two factors: i) inoculation of seed, root and seed + root with bio-fertilizer (Barvar-2) and control; application of chemical phosphorus at 100 mg I(-1), 200 mg l(-1), 300 mg l(-1) and 400 mg l(-1) levels. In this study, flowering time, display life, fresh and dry weight of flower, available soil phosphorus, shoot phosphorus and carotenoid content were evaluated. Results showed that the combined effect of bio- and chemical fertilizer was insignificant (p < 1 and 5%) for most of the characteristics studied except for shoot phosphorus and carotenoid content in petals. The lowest time to flowering (64.67 days) was obtained in seeds and transplant roots inoculation to bio-fertilizer x 400 mg I(-1) P. Maximum display life (25.35), fresh weight (16.20 g), carotenoid content (3.903 mg g(-1) d. wt.) and concentration of P in shoots (0.352%) were observed in transplant roots inoculation to bio-fertilizer x 400 mg I(-1) P.

The potential of gibberellic acid 3 (GA3) and Tween-80 induced phytoremediation of co-contamination of Cd and Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) using Tagetes patula.

The present study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of GA(3) and Tween-80 on enhancing the phytoremediation of Cd-B[a]P co-contaminated soils. Results showed that the addition of GA(3) and GA(3)-Tween-80 enhanced Tagetes patula growth by 14%-32% and 23%-55%, respectively, relative to the control group. However, under independent GA(3)-treated soils, Cd and B[a]P concentrations in the shoots of the plants decreased by 15%-33% and 15%-53%, respectively, compared with CK. By contrast, the shoot concentration and accumulation of Cd under GA(3)-Tween-80 treatment increased by 0.01-0.46 and 1.33-1.55 times, respectively, whereas those of B[a]P increased from 0.57 to 0.82, and 1.33 to 1.55 times, respectively, compared with those of the control. Optimal result for Cd phytoextraction was obtained under combined 5 mmol Tween-80 kg(-1) and 1 mmol GA(3) kg(-1) treatment, and the maximum removal rate of B[a]P was obtained after the application of 5 mmol Tween-80 kg(-1) and 5 mmol GA(3) kg(-1).

Chelator effects on bioconcentration and translocation of cadmium by hyperaccumulators, Tagetes patula and Impatiens walleriana.

French marigold (Tagetes patula) and impatiens (Impatiens walleriana) can act as hyperaccumulator plants for removal of cadmium (Cd) from contaminated sites. In this study, an exponential decay model was used to predict the maximum removal of Cd from artificially spiked soils by impatiens. Application of a chelator, EDTA, was also assessed for effects on the bioconcentration (BCF) and translocation (TF) factors of the two species with four replicates. Exposure to Cd significantly decreased the biomass of two plant species. Impatiens and French marigold accumulated Cd at a rate of 200-1200 mg Cd kg(-1) in shoots, with BCFs and TFs of 8.5-15 and 1.7-2.6, respectively.

The fungal fast lane: common mycorrhizal networks extend bioactive zones of allelochemicals in soils.

Allelopathy, a phenomenon where compounds produced by one plant limit the growth of surrounding plants, is a controversially discussed factor in plant-plant interactions with great significance for plant community structure. Common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) form belowground networks that interconnect multiple plant species; yet these networks are typically ignored in studies of allelopathy. We tested the hypothesis that CMNs facilitate transport of allelochemicals from supplier to target plants, thereby affecting allelopathic interactions. We analyzed accumulation of a model allelopathic substance, the herbicide imazamox, and two allelopathic thiophenes released from Tagetes tenuifolia roots, by diffusion through soil and CMNs. We also conducted bioassays to determine how the accumulated substances affected plant growth. All compounds accumulated to greater levels in target soils with CMNs as opposed to soils without CMNs. This increased accumulation was associated with reduced growth of target plants in soils with CMNs. Our results show that CMNs support transfer of allelochemicals from supplier to target plants and thus lead to allelochemical accumulation at levels that could not be reached by diffusion through soil alone. We conclude that CMNs expand the bioactive zones of allelochemicals in natural environments, with significant implications for interspecies chemical interactions in plant communities.

EDTA and citric acid mediated phytoextraction of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd through marigold (Tagetes erecta).

Phytoextraction is an emerging cost-effective solution for remediation of contaminated soils which involves the removal of toxins, especially heavy metals and metalloids, by the roots of the plants with subsequent transport to aerial plant organs. The aim of the present investigation is to study the effects of EDTA and citric acid on accumulation potential of marigold (Tagetes erecta) to Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd and also to evaluate the impacts of these chelators (EDTA and citric acid) in combination with all the four heavy metals on the growth of marigold. The plants were grown in pots and treated with Zn (7.3 mg l(-1)), Cu (7.5 mg I(-1)), Pb (3.7 mg l(-1)) and Cd (0.2 mg l(-1)) alone and in combination with different doses of EDTA i.e., 10, 20 and 30 mg l(-1). All the three doses of EDTA i.e., 10, 20 and 30 mg l(-1) significantly increased the accumulation of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd by roots, stems and leaves as compared to control treatments. The 30 mg l(-1) concentration of citric acid showed reduced accumulation of these metals by root, stem and leaves as compared to lower doses i.e., 10 and 20 mg l(-1). Among the four heavy metals, Zn accumulated in the great amount (526.34 mg kg(-1) DW) followed by Cu (443.14 mg kg(-1) DW), Pb (393.16 mg kg(-1) DW) and Cd (333.62 mg kg(-1) DW) in leaves with 30 mg l(-1) EDTA treatment. The highest concentration of EDTA and citric acid (30 mg l(-1)) caused significant reduction in growth of marigold in terms of plant height, fresh weight of plant, total chlorophyll, carbohydrate content and protein content. Thus EDTA and citric acid efficiently increased the phytoextractability of marigold which can be used to remediate the soil contaminated with these metals.

Degradation analysis of Reactive Red 198 by hairy roots of Tagetes patula L. (Marigold).

Tagetes patula L. (Marigold) hairy roots were selected among few hairy root cultures from other plants tested for the decolorization of Reactive Red 198. Hairy roots of Tagetes were able to remove dye concentrations up to 110 mg L(-l) and could be successively used at least for five consecutive decolorization cycles. The hairy roots of Tagetes decolorized six different dyes, viz. Golden Yellow HER, Methyl Orange, Orange M2RL, Navy Blue HE2R, Reactive Red M5B and Reactive Red 198. Significant induction of the activity of biotransformation enzymes indicated their crucial role in the dye metabolism. UV-vis spectroscopy, HPLC and FTIR spectroscopy analyses confirmed the degradation of Reactive Red 198. A possible pathway for the biodegradation of Reactive Red 198 has been proposed with the help of GC-MS and metabolites identified as 2-aminonaphthol, p-aminovinylsulfone ethyl disulfate and 1-aminotriazine, 3-pyridine sulfonic acid. The phytotoxicity study demonstrated the non-toxic nature of the extracted metabolites. The use of such hairy root cultures with a high ability for bioremediation of dyes is discussed.

[Effects of EDTA on lead accumulation in Tagetes patula and Salvia spendens].

Pot experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of EDTA on the Pb availability in rhizospheric soil and the Pb accumulation in Tagetes patula and Salvia spendens. The results showed that 7 days after applying EDTA (3.0 mmol x kg(-1)) into soil, the concentration of ammonium acetate (1 mol x L(-1)) -extracted Pb in rhizospheric soil increased significantly (P < 0.01), and the Pb content in T. patula and S. spendens leaves reached to 2415.88 and 1083.68 mg x kg(-1), being 61.36 and 5.37 times of the control, respectively. The Pb content also had a marked increase in T. patula and S. spendens stems, but had a slight decrease in their roots.

Cell division versus cell elongation: the control of radicle elongation during thermoinhibition of Tagetes minuta achenes.

Endogenous embryo factors, which act mainly in the radicle, prevent germination in Tagetes minuta at high temperatures. These factors act to prevent cell elongation, which is critical for radicle protrusion under optimal conditions. Once the radicle has emerged both cell elongation and cell division are required for post-germination growth. Germination can be induced at high temperatures by fusicoccin, which rapidly stimulates cell elongation. In addition, priming seeds at 25 degrees C on polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000 and mannitol could also induce germination on water at 36 degrees C, indicating that priming prevents radicle protrusion at a point subsequent to the point of control in thermoinhibited achenes. Flow cytometry studies revealed that DNA synthesis occurs during thermoinhibition and the inhibition of DNA synthesis during this process inhibits subsequent germination on water under optimal conditions, suggesting a protective role for DNA synthesis in thermoinhibited achenes of T. minuta.

Characteristics of cadmium accumulation and tolerance in novel Cd-accumulating crops, Avena strigosa and Crotalaria juncea.

Characteristics of accumulation and tolerance of cadmium (Cd) in green manure crops were investigated to identify Cd-accumulating crops and to clarify the mechanisms involved in Cd accumulation and tolerance. Seedlings of eight crop species were treated with Cd (1 mg l(-1) or 5 mg l(-1)) in the growing medium for 4 d. Cd concentration in leaves of Avena strigosa Schreb. cv. New-oat, Crotalaria juncea L. and Tagetes erecta L. cv. African-tall was greater than values used to define Cd-hyperaccumulation (>100 mg Cd kg(-1) DW). However, in leaves of T. erecta, lipid peroxidation level increased significantly, and the activities of superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and catalase were depressed by both Cd treatments. By contrast, A. strigosa and C. juncea exhibited high Cd tolerance. Avena strigosa leaves showed higher activities of antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase than those of other species tested. Crotalaria juncea showed higher amounts of total soluble phenolics which, in leaves, were doubled by 5 mg l(-1) Cd treatment. When two Cd-tolerant accumulators (A. strigosa and C. juncea) and the non-accumulator (C. spectabilis) were treated with lower Cd concentrations for 4 weeks, A. strigosa and C. juncea exhibited superior Cd accumulation in the shoots with greater biomass production compared with C. spectabilis. These results indicate that A. strigosa and C. juncea possess the greater potential for Cd accumulation and tolerance than common crops.

Ecotoxicological effects of cadmium on three ornamental plants.

Ecotoxicological effects of cadmium (Cd) on three ornamental plants African marigold (Tagetes erecta), scarlet sage (Salvia splendens) and sweet hibiscus (Abelmoschus manihot) were investigated. Seeds of these plants were exposed to five different concentrations of Cd (0-50 mgl(-1)). Ecotoxicological indexes based on inhibition rate (IC) of seed germination, root and shoot elongation, biomass (fresh weight and dry weight), as well as IC50 (Cd concentration when 50% plants show inhibition) and tolerance indexes (the ratio of maximum root length in an experimental group to that in a control group) were determined. The results indicated that Cd had little effects (p>0.05) on seed germination of the three plants and shoot elongation of scarlet sage (S. splendens). Cadmium had significant (p<0.05) inhibitory effects on root elongation of the three plants and shoot elongation of African marigold (T. erecta). The fresh weight biomass of scarlet sage (S. splendens) was most sensitive to Cd, while that of sweet hibiscus (A. manihot) was least sensitive. On a dry weight basis, African marigold (T. erecta) was the least sensitive, and scarlet sage (S. splendens) was the most sensitive to Cd. Based on IC50 of seed germination, sweet hibiscus (A. manihot) was the most insensitive plant with an IC50 value as high as 428.0 gl(-1). According to Cd-tolerance indexes under the same Cd concentration, sweet hibiscus (A. manihot) was the most tolerant plant whereas scarlet sage (S. splendens) was the most sensitive one.

Monitoring the effects of atmospheric ethylene near polyethylene manufacturing plants with two sensitive plant species.

Data of a multi-year (1977-1983) biomonitoring programme with marigold and petunia around polyethylene manufacturing plants was analysed to assess plant responses to atmospheric ethylene and to determine the area at risk for the phytotoxic effects of this pollutant. In both species, flower formation and growth were severely reduced close to the emission sources and plant performance improved with increasing distance. Plants exposed near the border of the research area had more flowers than the unexposed control while their growth was normal. Measurements of ethylene concentrations at a border site revealed that the growing season mean was 61.5 g m(-3) in 1982 and 15.6 g m(-3) in 1983. In terms of number of flowers, petunia was more sensitive than marigold and adverse effects were observed within ca. 400 m distance from the sources for marigold and within ca. 460 m for petunia. The area at risk (ca. 870 m) for ethylene-induced growth reduction was also limited to the industrial zone. Plants were more sensitive to ethylene in terms of growth reduction than in terms of inhibition of flowering. In the Netherlands, maximum permissible levels of ethylene are currently based on information from laboratory and greenhouse studies. Our results indicate that these levels are rather conservative in protecting field-grown plants against ethylene-induced injury near polyethylene manufacturing plants.