Episodic mandibular tremor in dogs: an idiopathic movement disorder or a manifestation of pain.

OBJECTIVE: Episodic mandibular tremor (EMT), manifested as teeth chattering, is not well described in dogs. The aim of this study was to describe clinical signs, MRI findings, and outcome of dogs with EMT. ANIMALS: 11 dogs retrospectively and 31 dogs in an online survey. METHODS: A retrospective multicenter study of dogs with EMT between 2018 and 2023 and prospective online questionnaire open to owners of pets with teeth chattering. RESULTS: All dogs had rapid and short-lasting (< 1 minute) episodes of EMT in the absence of other neurological signs. Lip smacking occasionally accompanied the tremor in 5 of 11 (45.5%) hospital dog cases. Excitement was a common trigger in 14 of 31 (45.2%) dogs from the survey. Cavalier King Charles Spaniel was the most common breed in both clinical and survey populations. Median age at presentation was 3 years for both hospital cases and the survey dogs. A concurrent medical condition was present in 8 of 11 (72.7%) hospital cases and 20 of 31 (64.5%) survey dogs. In 3 hospital dogs that underwent further investigations, no brain disease was present. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: EMT and its clinical features are presented for the first time, shedding light on a clinical sign that might resemble an idiopathic movement disorder or a manifestation of pain in dogs.

Effect of age at training initiation on hoof morphology and lameness in juvenile American Quarter Horses.

BACKGROUND: Lameness, discipline, training intensity, environmental variability, and shoeing are all factors demonstrated to affect hoof loading and therefore act as adaptive stimuli to alter hoof morphology. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of age at training initiation on hoof morphology and lameness incidence and determine if specific hoof morphology measurements correlate with lameness in juvenile American Quarter Horses. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: American Quarter Horses (n = 42; 29 two-year-olds, 13 three-year-olds) entering training were monitored for hoof morphology and lameness over 6 months (months 0, 2, 4, and 6). Hoof measurements (palmar/plantar angles, frog base width/length, toe length/angle, heel length/angle, heel and foot width, wall height/angle) from radiographs and photographs were recorded. Lameness was graded subjectively and objectively (Lameness locator®). Statistical analyses were performed with Fisher's exact test and repeated measures ANOVA with p < 0.05. RESULTS: 25/42 horses developed subclinical lameness (16/42 forelimb, 19/42 hindlimb), with 3-year-olds developing lameness more frequently compared to 2-year-olds overall (p = 0.04; 84.6 vs. 48.3%) and in forelimbs (p = 0.05; 61.5% vs. 27.6%); no difference was noted between 2- versus 3-year-olds in hindlimbs (p = 0.2; 61.5% vs. 37.9%). In lame versus sound forelimbs, 3-year-olds had decreased foot width (p = 0.03; 11.48 cm [CI 10.68-12.28] vs. 12.21 cm [CI 11.99-12.42]), decreased toe length (p = 0.03; 6.02 cm [CI 5.69-6.36] vs. 6.45 cm [CI 6.32-6.58]), shorter lateral wall height (p = 0.03; 4.64 cm [CI 4.31-4.96] vs. 5.11 cm [CI 5.03-5.2]), and shorter medial wall height (p = 0.02; 4.58 cm [CI 4.06-5.10] vs. 5.15 cm [CI 4.99-5.30]). In lame versus sound hindlimbs, horses overall (p = 0.05; 3.74, CI 3.53-3.96 vs. 3.55, CI 3.48-3.61) and 3-year-olds had longer heels p = 0.01; 3.90 cm (CI 3.5-4.3) vs. 3.50 cm (CI 3.39-3.61). MAIN LIMITATIONS: Small sample size, lack of control group not entering training. CONCLUSIONS: Three-year-old American Quarter Horses entering training were more likely to develop forelimb lameness than 2-year-olds. This subclinical lameness was associated with specific hoof morphology characteristics (decreased foot width, toe length, heel length, and lateral/medial wall height; greater toe angle).

INTRODUCTION/CONTEXTE: Les boiterie, discipline, intensité d'entraînement, variabilité environnementale et ferrage ont tous été établis comme facteurs affectant le port de poids au niveau du sabot. Ils contribuent aux stimuli adaptatifs qui peuvent altérer la morphologie du sabot. OBJECTIFS: Évaluer l'effet de l'âge en début d'entraînement sur la morphologie du sabot, l'incidence de boiterie et déterminer si des mesures spécifiques de morphologie du sabot pourraient être corrélées avec une boiterie chez les chevaux Quarter Horse Américains. TYPE D'ÉTUDE: Étude de cohorte prospective. MÉTHODES: Des Quarter Horse Américains (n = 42; 29 2 ans, 13 3 ans) en début d'entraînement ont été suivi pour la présence de boiterie et la conformation de leur sabot sur une période de 6 mois (mois 0, 2, 4, 6). Des mesures de sabot (angles palmaires/plantaires, largeur/longueur de la base de la fourchette, longueur/angle de la pince, longueur/angle des talons, largeur du pied et des talons, hauteur/angle de la muraille) à partir de radiographies et de photographies ont été recueillies. Les boiteries ont été gradées subjectivement et objectivement (Lameness locator®). Des analyses statistiques ont été effectuées avec la méthode exacte de Fisher et ANOVA pour mesures répétées avec un p < 0.05. RÉSULTATS: 25/42 chevaux ont développé une boiterie sous-clinique (16/42 membre antérieur, 19/42 membre postérieur). Les chevaux âgés de 3 ans ont développé une boiterie de façon plus fréquente comparativement aux 2 ans (p = 0.04; 84.6 vs. 48.3%) et aux membres antérieurs (p = 0.05; 61.5% vs. 27.6%); il n'y avait pas de différence au niveau des membres postérieurs entre les 2 et 3 ans. En comparant les chevaux boiteux des antérieurs avec ceux qui ne boitaient pas, les 3 ans avaient une largeur de sabot diminuée (p = 0.03; 11.48 cm [IC 10.68-12.28] vs. 12.21 cm [IC 11.99-12.42]), une longueur de pince plus courte (p = 0.03; 6.02 cm [IC 5.69-6.36] vs. 6.45 cm [IC 6.32-6.58]), une hauteur de muraille latérale plus courte (p = 0.032; 4.64 cm [IC 4.31-4.96] vs. 5.11 cm [IC 5.03-5.2]) et une hauteur de muraille médiale plus courte également (p = 0.024; 4.58 cm [IC 4.06-5.10] vs. 5.15 cm [IC 4.99-5.30]). En comparant les chevaux boiteux des postérieurs avec ceux qui ne boitaient pas, chevaux dans l'ensemble (p = 0.05; 3.74, CI 3.53-3.96 vs. 3.55, CI 3.48-3.61) et les 3 ans avaient des talons plus long (p = 0.01; 3.90 cm [IC 3.5-4.3] vs. 3.50 cm [IC 3.39-3.61]). LIMITES PRINCIPALES: Petite taille d'échantillon, aucun groupe contrôle n'ayant pas commencé l'entraînement. CONCLUSIONS: Les Quarter Horse Américains âgés de 3 ans qui débutent l'entraînement sont plus à risque de développer une boiterie des antérieurs comparativement aux chevaux de 2 ans. Une boiterie sous-clinique était associée à des caractéristiques morphologiques spécifiques au sabot (Largeur du sabot, longueur de la pince, longueur des talons et hauteur des murailles latérales et médiales toutes diminuées; angle de la pince augmenté).

Dystonia in veterinary neurology.

Dystonia is a clinical sign and main feature of many movement disorders in humans as well as veterinary species. It is characterized by sustained or intermittent involuntary muscle contractions causing abnormal (often repetitive) movements, postures, or both. This review discusses the terminology and definition of dystonia, its phenomenology, and its pathophysiology, and provides considerations regarding the diagnosis and treatment of dystonia in dogs and cats. In addition, currently recognized or reported disorders in dogs and cats in which dystonia is a particular or main feature are discussed and comparisons are made between disorders featuring dystonia in humans and animals. We suggest that when describing the phenomenology of dogs and cats with dystonia, if possible the following should be included: activity being performed at onset (e.g., resting or running or exercise-induced), body distribution, duration, responsiveness (subjective), severity, temporal pattern (i.e., paroxysmal or persistent, severity at onset and at later stages), presence or absence of autonomic signs (e.g., salivation), presence or absence of preceding signs (e.g., restlessness), presence or absence of signs after dystonia subsides (e.g., sleepiness), coexistence of other movement disorders, any other neurological manifestations, and possible links to administered medications, intoxications or other associated factors. We also suggest that dystonia be classified based on its etiology as either structural genetic, suspected genetic, reactive, or unknown.

Movement Disorders and Cerebellar Abiotrophy.

Movement disorders are defined as involuntary movements that are not due to a painful stimulus or associated with changes in consciousness or proprioception. Diagnosis involves ruling out any lameness and neurologic disease and characterizing the gait during walking backward and forward and trotting. Shivers causes abnormal hindlimb hypertonicity during walking backward and, when advanced, a few strides walking forward. Stringhalt causes consistent hyperflexion during walking forward and trotting and variable difficulty when walking backward. Classification and potential causes are discussed as well as other enigmatic movement disorders in horses are presented. Cerebellar abiotrophy is reviewed.

Quantitative Gait Analysis Before and After a Cross-country Test in a Population of Elite Eventing Horses.

Early recognition of lameness is crucial for injury prevention. Quantitative gait analysis systems can detect low-grade asymmetries better than the human eye and may be useful in early lameness recognition. The aims of this study were (1) to investigate the frequency of gait asymmetries based on head and pelvic movement in elite eventing horses using inertial mounted measurement units and (2) to assess the association between asymmetries and muscle enzymes and blood lactate (LA) levelspost-exercise. Movement asymmetry of the head, wither, and pelvis were quantified in 33 elite eventing horses prior to and one day after the cross-country test of three Concours Complet International (CCI3* and CCI4*) events held three weeks apart. The effects of LA concentration immediately after completion of the cross-country course and of serum levels of creatine kinase (CK) and aspartate amino-transferase (AST) four hours post-exercise on gait asymmetry parameters were tested with linear models. A total of 58% and 77% of the 33 horses exhibited gait asymmetries that exceeded published threshold values before and after the cross-country course, respectively. The magnitude of pre-existing gait asymmetries was not significantly increased after the cross-country test and no associations with post-exercise levels of CK, AST, or LA were detected. The stride duration was significantly shorter the day following the cross-country test and was associated with LA, the age and the weight of the horses. In conclusion, a majority of the horses studied presented gait asymmetries and strenuous exercise resulted in decreased stride duration but did not worsen gait asymmetries.

Shivering and Stringhalt in horses.

Pelvic limb movement disorders unrelated to lameness or proprioceptive ataxia have been described in horses for centuries. The two best described are Shivering and Stringhalt. Shivering is unique in that it is primarily apparent when horses are asked to walk backward, without affecting forward gaits until quite advanced. Horses exhibit abduction and either hyperflexion or marked hyperextension of one or both pelvic limbs when walking backward, resulting in a pause at the peak of the stride cycle and reluctance to move backward. Generally, Stringhalt differs from Shivering in that it produces consistent hyperflexion without abduction in forward gaits including walk and trot. This review will focus on the two most common pelvic limb movement disorders, Shivering and Stringhalt, their clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, etiopathology, and treatment.

Relationship Between Body Mass and the Hoof Area: Understanding the Turner's Formula.

The equine hoof balance has been the subject of several studies, reflecting the importance of hooves for the good health and performance of these animals. An important condition for the hooves health is its loading, where too much weight in a small area can increase the chances of lameness. Therefore, an equation has been proposed to identify the relationship between body mass and hoof size and has been used in several studies. However, a clear description of how it was developed and what its results really indicate is not available in the literature. In light of this, this article aims to describe this Turner's equation and propose modifications to better characterize the body mass to hoof size ratio for fore- and hindlimbs.

Repeatability of flatfish reflex impairment assessments based on video recordings.

Using measures of reflex impairment and injury to quantify an aquatic organism's vitality have gained popularity as survival predictors of discarded non-target fisheries catch. To evaluate the robustness of this method with respect to 'rater' subjectivity, we tested inter- and intra-rater repeatability and the role of 'expectation bias'. From video clips, multiple raters determined impairment levels of four reflexes of beam-trawled common sole (Solea solea) intended for discard. Raters had a range of technical experience, including veterinary students, practicing veterinarians, and fisheries scientists. Expectation bias was evaluated by first assessing a rater's assumption about the effect of air exposure on vitality, then comparing their reflex ratings of the same fish, once when the true air exposure duration was indicated and once when the time was exaggerated (by either 15 or 30 min). Inter-rater repeatability was assessed by having multiple raters evaluate those clips with true air exposure information; and intra- and inter-rater repeatability was determined by having individual raters evaluate a series of duplicated clips, all with true air exposure. Results indicate that inter- and intra-rater repeatability were high (intra-class correlation coefficients of 74% for both), and were not significantly affected by background type nor expectation bias related to assumed impact from prolonged air exposure. This suggests that reflex impairment as a metric for predicting fish survival is robust to involving multiple raters with diverse backgrounds. Bias is potentially more likely to be introduced through subjective reflexes than raters, given that consistency in scoring differed for some reflexes based on rater experience type. This study highlights the need to provide ample training for raters, and that no prior experience is needed to become a reliable rater. Moreover, before implementing reflexes in a vitality study, it is important to evaluate whether the determination of presence/absence is subjective.

Effect of meloxicam treatment on movement asymmetry in riding horses in training.

Quantitative gait analysis has revealed that a large proportion of horses in training, perceived as free from lameness by their owners, show movement asymmetries of equal magnitude to horses with mild clinical lameness. Whether these movement asymmetries are related to orthopaedic pain and/or pathology has yet to be further investigated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether movement asymmetries in riding horses in training are affected by anti-inflammatory treatment with meloxicam. In a crossover design, horses were treated with meloxicam or placebo for four days respectively, with a 14-16 day washout period between treatments. Objective movement analysis utilising body mounted accelerometers was performed on a hard and a soft surface before and on day four of each treatment. A trial mean was calculated for the differences between the two vertical displacement minima and maxima of head (HDmin, HDmax) and pelvis (PDmin, PDmax) per stride. Horses (n = 66) with trial mean asymmetries greater than 6 mm for HDmin or HDmax, or more than 3 mm for PDmin or PDmax, at baseline were included. The difference before and after each treatment in the measured movement asymmetry was assessed with linear mixed models. Treatment with meloxicam did not significantly affect the movement asymmetry in any of the models applied (all p>0.30). These results raise new questions: are the movement asymmetries in riding horses in training simply expressions of biological variation or are they related to pain/dysfunction that is non-responsive to meloxicam treatment?

Head and pelvic vertical displacement in dogs with induced swinging limb lameness: an experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Swinging limb lameness is defined as a motion disturbance ascribed to a limb in swing phase. Little is known about its biomechanics in dogs, particularly about the body motions that accompany it, such as vertical head and pelvic motion asymmetry. The aim of this study was to describe the changes in vertical head and pelvic motion asymmetry in dogs with induced swinging limb motion disturbance, mimicking a swinging limb lameness. Fore- and hind-limb lameness was induced in ten sound dogs by placing a weight (200 g) proximal to the carpus or tarsus, respectively. Marker-based motion capture by eight infrared light emitting video cameras recorded the dogs when trotting on a treadmill. Body symmetry parameters were calculated, including differences between the two highest positions of the head (HDmax) and pelvis (PDmax) and between the two lowest positions of the head (HDmin) and pelvis (PDmin), with a value of zero indicating perfect symmetry. RESULTS: Induction of swinging forelimb lameness showed significant changes in HDmax (median and range: sound 1.3 mm [- 4.7 to 3.1], in the left side - 28.5 mm [- 61.2 to - 17.9] and in the right side 20.1 mm [- 4.4 to 47.5]) and, induction of swinging hind limb lameness showed significant changes in PDmax (sound 2.7 mm [- 7.4 to 7.2], in the left side - 10.9 mm [- 22.4 to 0.5] and in the right side 8.6 mm [- 3 to 30]), as well as an increased hip movement asymmetry (sound 1.6 mm [- 8.6 to 19.9], in the left side - 18.1 mm [- 36.7 to 5.4] and in the right side 15 mm [- 20.7 to 32.1]) (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Induced swinging fore- and hind limb lameness resulted in significant increased asymmetry of the maximal vertical displacement movement of the head and pelvis, due to decreased lifting of the head in forelimb lameness and of the pelvis in hind limb lameness. The results suggest that asymmetry of the maximal vertical displacement of the head and pelvis (i.e. lifting) is a key lameness sign to evaluate during examination of swinging limb lameness.

Abnormal locomotor muscle recruitment activity is present in horses with shivering and Purkinje cell distal axonopathy.

BACKGROUND: Cerebellar Purkinje cell axonal degeneration has been identified in horses with shivering but its relationship with abnormal hindlimb movement has not been elucidated. OBJECTIVES: To characterise surface electromyographic (sEMG) hindlimb muscle activity in horses with shivering, correlate with clinical scores and examine horses for Purkinje axonal degeneration. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive controlled clinical study. METHODS: The hindlimb of seven shivering and six control draught horses were clinically scored. Biceps femoris (BF), vastus lateralis (VL), tensor fasciae latae and extensor digitorum longus were recorded via sEMG during forward/backward walking and trotting. Integrated (iEMG) and peak EMG activity were compared between groups and correlated with clinical locomotor exam scores. Sections of the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) of six of the seven shivering horses were examined with calbindin immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: In control horses, backward walking resembled forward walking (right hindlimb peak EMG: backward: 47.5 ± 21.9%, forward: 36.9 ± 15.7%) but displayed significantly higher amplitudes during trotting (76.1 ± 3.4%). However, in shivering horses, backward walking was significantly different from forward (backward: 88.5 ± 21.5%, forward: 49.2 ± 8.9%), and resembled activity during trotting (81.4 ± 4.8%). Specific to backward walking, mean sEMG amplitude fell outside two standard deviations of mean control sEMG for ≥25% of the stride in the BF for all seven and the VL for six of the seven shivering horses. Locomotor exam scores were correlated with peak EMG (r = 0.87) and iEMG (r = 0.87). Calbindin-positive spheroids were present in Purkinje axons in DCN of all shivering horses examined. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The neuropathological examination focused specifically on the DCN and, therefore, we cannot fully exclude additional lesions that may have influenced abnormal sEMG findings in shivering horses. CONCLUSION: Shivering is characterised by abnormally elevated muscle recruitment particularly in BF and VL muscles during backward walking and associated with selective Purkinje cell distal axonal degeneration.

Single amino acid deletion in transmembrane segment D4S6 of sodium channel Scn8a (Nav1.6) in a mouse mutant with a chronic movement disorder.

Mutations of the neuronal sodium channel gene SCN8A are associated with lethal movement disorders in the mouse and with human epileptic encephalopathy. We describe a spontaneous mouse mutation, Scn8a(9J), that is associated with a chronic movement disorder with early onset tremor and adult onset dystonia. Scn8a(9J) homozygotes have a shortened lifespan, with only 50% of mutants surviving beyond 6 months of age. The 3 bp in-frame deletion removes 1 of the 3 adjacent isoleucine residues in transmembrane segment DIVS6 of Nav1.6 (p.Ile1750del). The altered helical orientation of the transmembrane segment displaces pore-lining amino acids with important roles in channel activation and inactivation. The predicted impact on channel activity was confirmed by analysis of cerebellar Purkinje neurons from mutant mice, which lack spontaneous and induced repetitive firing. In a heterologous expression system, the activity of the mutant channel was below the threshold for detection. Observations of decreased nerve conduction velocity and impaired behavior in an open field are also consistent with reduced activity of Nav1.6. The Nav1.6Δ1750 protein is only partially glycosylated. The abundance of mutant Nav1.6 is reduced at nodes of Ranvier and is not detectable at the axon initial segment. Despite a severe reduction in channel activity, the lifespan and motor function of Scn8a(9J/9J) mice are significantly better than null mutants lacking channel protein. The clinical phenotype of this severe hypomorphic mutant expands the spectrum of Scn8a disease to include a recessively inherited, chronic and progressive movement disorder.

The Equine Movement Disorder "Shivers" Is Associated With Selective Cerebellar Purkinje Cell Axonal Degeneration.

"Shivers" is a progressive equine movement disorder of unknown etiology. Clinically, horses with shivers show difficulty walking backward, assume hyperflexed limb postures, and have hind limb tremors during backward movement that resembles shivering. At least initially, forward movements are normal. Given that neither the neurophysiologic nor the pathologic mechanisms of the disease is known, nor has a neuroanatomic locus been identified, we undertook a detailed neuroanatomic and neuropathologic analysis of the complete sensorimotor system in horses with shivers and clinically normal control horses. No abnormalities were identified in the examined hind limb and forelimb skeletal muscles nor the associated peripheral nerves. Eosinophilic segmented axonal spheroids were a common lesion. Calretinin-positive axonal spheroids were present in many regions of the central nervous system, particularly the nucleus cuneatus lateralis; however, their numbers did not differ significantly from those of control horses. When compared to controls, calretinin-negative, calbindin-positive, and glutamic acid decarboxylase-positive spheroids were increased 80-fold in Purkinje cell axons within the deep cerebellar nuclei of horses with shivers. Unusual lamellar or membranous structures resembling marked myelin decompaction were present between myelin sheaths of presumed Purkinje cell axons in the deep cerebellar nuclei of shivers but not control horses. The immunohistochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of the lesions combined with their functional neuroanatomic distribution indicate, for the first time, that shivers is characterized by end-terminal neuroaxonal degeneration in the deep cerebellar nuclei, which results in context-specific hypermetria and myoclonus.

Posture and movement characteristics of forward and backward walking in horses with shivering and acquired bilateral stringhalt.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: To investigate and further characterise posture and movement characteristics during forward and backward walking in horses with shivering and acquired, bilateral stringhalt. OBJECTIVES: To characterise the movement of horses with shivering (also known as shivers) in comparison with control horses and horses with acquired bilateral stringhalt. STUDY DESIGN: Qualitative video analysis of gait in horses. METHODS: Owners' and authors' videos of horses with shivering or stringhalt and control horses walking forwards and backwards and manually lifting their limbs were examined subjectively to characterise hyperflexion, hyperextension and postural abnormalities of the hindlimbs. The pattern and timing of vertical displacement of a hindlimb over one stride unit was evaluated among control, shivering and stringhalt cases. RESULTS: Gait patterns of shivering cases were characterised as follows: shivering-hyperextension (-HE, n = 13), in which horses subjectively showed hyperextension when backing and lifting the limb; shivering-hyperflexion (-HF, n = 27), in which horses showed hindlimb hyperflexion and abduction during backward walking; and shivering-forward hyperflexion (-FHF, n = 4), which resembled shivering-HF but included intermittent hyperflexion and abduction with forward walking. Horses with shivering-HF, shivering-FHF and stringhalt (n = 7) had a prolonged swing phase duration compared with control horses and horses with shivering-HE during backward walking. With the swing phase of forward walking, horses with stringhalt had a rapid ascent to adducted hyperflexion of the hindlimb, compared with a rapid descent of the hindlimb after abducted hyperflexion in horses with shivering-FHF. CONCLUSIONS: Shivering affects backward walking, with either HE or HF of hindlimbs, and can gradually progress to involve intermittent abducted hyperflexion during forward walking. Shivering-HF and shivering-FHF can look remarkably similar to acquired bilateral stringhalt during backward walking; however, stringhalt can be distinguished from shivering-HF by hyperflexion during forward walking and from shivering-FHF by an acute onset of a more consistent, rapidly ascending, hyperflexed, adducted hindlimb gait at a walk.

Epidemiology of shivering (shivers) in horses.

REASONS FOR PERFOMING STUDY: Investigating the epidemiology of shivering in horses. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to characterise the signalment, clinical signs and management factors associated with shivering (also known as shivers), a relatively rare, poorly defined movement disorder in horses. STUDY DESIGN: Web-based case series survey and case-control study. METHODS: A Web-based survey was used to obtain information from owners, worldwide, who suspected that their horse had shivering. Survey respondents were asked to answer standardised questions and to provide a video of the horse. Authors reviewed the surveys and videos, and horses were diagnosed with shivering if they displayed normal forward walking, with difficulty during manual lifting of the hoof and backward walking due to hyperflexion or hyperextension of the pelvic limbs. Cases confirmed by video were designated 'confirmed shivering', while those with compatible clinical signs but lacking video confirmation were designated 'suspected shivering'. Owners of confirmed shivering horses were asked to provide information on 2 horses without signs of shivering (control group). RESULTS: Three hundred and five surveys and 70 videos were received; 27 horses were confirmed shivering (50 controls), 67 were suspected shivering and the rest had a variety of other movement disorders. Suspected shivering horses resembled confirmed shivering cases, except that the suspected shivering group contained fewer draught breeds and fewer horses with exercise intolerance. Confirmed shivering signs often began at <5 years of age and progressed in 74% of cases. Owner-reported additional clinical signs in confirmed cases included muscle twitching (85%), muscle atrophy (44%), reduced strength (33%) and exercise intolerance (33%). Shivering horses were significantly taller (confirmed shivering, mean ∼173 cm; control horses, ∼163 cm) with a higher male:female ratio (confirmed shivering, 3.2:1 vs. control, 1.7:1). No potential triggering factors or effective treatments were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Shivering is a chronic, often gradually progressive movement disorder that usually begins before 7 years of age and has a higher prevalence in tall male horses.

Hindlimb lameness and gait abnormalities in bitches with pyometra.

The objective of this study was to assess the frequency of gait abnormalities and lameness (GAL) in bitches with pyometra, and their association with clinical and laboratory findings. The study included 79 bitches diagnosed with pyometra and 35 negative control intact bitches presented with other soft tissue surgical disorders. Dogs with a history of chronic lameness due to orthopaedic or neurological origin were excluded. A history of GAL was more frequent in the pyometra group (47 per cent) compared with the control group (20 per cent) (P=0.007). In the pyometra group, bitches presenting GAL had (P<0.04) higher frequencies of closed-cervix pyometra, anorexia and vomiting, as well as higher serum creatinine concentration and muscle enzymes activity, compared with those in without GAL. GAL signs resolved postovariohysterectomy in all but one bitch. The results suggest that GAL signs occur frequently in bitches with pyometra, especially in closed-cervix disease. Therefore, pyometra should be considered among the differential diagnoses when GAL occurs, especially when the clinical signs are non-specific and the reproductive history is unclear.