Exploring the dermotoxicity of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol: combined morphologic and proteomic profiling of human epidermal cells reveals alteration of lipid biosynthesis machinery and membrane structural integrity relevant for skin barrier function.

Deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin, DON) is a secondary metabolite produced by Fusarium spp. fungi and it is one of the most prevalent mycotoxins worldwide. Crop infestation results not only in food and feed contamination, but also in direct dermal exposure, especially during harvest and food processing. To investigate the potential dermotoxicity of DON, epidermoid squamous cell carcinoma cells A431 were compared to primary human neonatal keratinocytes (HEKn) cells via proteome/phosphoproteome profiling. In A431 cells, 10 µM DON significantly down-regulated ribosomal proteins, as well as mitochondrial respiratory chain elements (OXPHOS regulation) and transport proteins (TOMM22; TOMM40; TOMM70A). Mitochondrial impairment was reflected in altered metabolic competence, apparently combined with interference of the lipid biosynthesis machinery. Functional effects on the cell membrane were confirmed by live cell imaging and membrane fluidity assays (0.1-10 µM DON). Moreover, a common denominator for both A431 and HEKn cells was a significant downregulation of the squalene synthase (FDFT1). In sum, proteome alterations could be traced back to the transcription factor Klf4, a crucial regulator of skin barrier function. Overall, these results describe decisive molecular events sustaining the capability of DON to impair skin barrier function. Proteome data generated in the study are fully accessible via ProteomeXchange with the accession numbers PXD011474 and PXD013613.

Oral deoxynivalenol toxicity in Harlan Sprague Dawley (Hsd:Sprague Dawley® SD®) rat dams and their offspring.

There is widespread human exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON), a fungal mycotoxin found globally in many grain-based foods and animal feed. Acute exposures to high levels of DON are associated with gastrointestinal effects and emesis in humans and some animals, but the effects of low-dose exposures throughout the lifetime, a more likely exposure scenario in humans, are understudied. Therefore, this study was designed to identify doses of DON that could be used to evaluate long-term toxicity following perinatal exposure. Time-mated Harlan Sprague Dawley (Hsd:Sprague Dawley® SD®) rats were administered 0, 0.03, 0.1, 0.3, 1, or 3 mg/kg/day of DON once daily via gavage starting on gestational day 6 through postnatal day (PND) 27. F1 animals were administered the same dose as their respective dams via gavage starting on PND 12 until PND 27. Animals were euthanized on PND 28. DON had no effect on maternal body weight or feed consumption at any dose. Findings were limited to the 3 mg/kg/day group: F0 females had smaller live litter sizes than controls and F1 pups had lower body weight (4-13%) compared to controls. By PND 28, F1 body weight, after adjustments for litter effects, was 10-13% lower than controls. Blood samples obtained on PND 28 showed no increases in frequencies of micronucleated immature erythrocytes in either F0 or F1 animals. In summary, doses of DON up to 3 mg/kg/day did not affect maternal survival or body weight. Doses of 3 mg/kg/day resulted in slight toxicity manifested as decreased body weight in the offspring. The no-observed effect level was 1 mg/kg/day.

Maternal Exposure Results in Long-Term Deoxynivalenol Persistence in Piglets' Plasma and Modulates the Immune System.

Deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated feed represents a serious problem for pigs due to their high sensitivity to its toxicological effects. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the impact of intrauterine DON exposure on the immune system of piglets. Pure DON was intravenously administered to sows at the end of gestation (during the last 2-3 days of gestation, one dose of 300 µg per day). The plasma concentration of DON was analyzed using liquid chromatography combined with high-resolution Orbitrap-based mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS (HR)) and selected immune parameters were monitored six times in piglets from birth to 18 weeks. DON was found in the plasma of 90% of newborn piglets at a mean concentration of 6.28 ng/mL and subsequently, at one, three, and seven weeks after birth with decreasing concentrations. Trace amounts were still present in the plasma 14 weeks after birth. Flow cytometry revealed a significant impact of DON on T lymphocyte subpopulations during the early postnatal period. Lower percentages of regulatory T cells, T helper lymphocytes, and their double positive CD4+CD8+ subset were followed by increased percentages of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and γδ T cells. The capacity to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines was also significantly lower after intrauterine DON exposure. In conclusion, this study revealed a long-term persistence of DON in the plasma of the piglets as a consequence of short-term intrauterine exposure, leading to altered immune parameters.

Acute and subacute oral administration of mycotoxin deoxynivalenol exacerbates the pro-inflammatory and pro-pruritic responses in a mouse model of allergic dermatitis.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination in food is a public health concern; however, the effect of DON exposure on immune disorders including allergies remains unclear. The aim of this study is to elucidate the effect of oral exposure to DON on pro-inflammatory and pro-pruritic responses in a mouse model of allergic dermatitis, which was generated by topical application of toluene-2,4-diisocyanate (TDI), a hapten that induces type-2 helper T cells. To evaluate acute exposure to DON, the mice were orally administered vehicle alone, 0.1 mg/kg DON, or 0.3 mg/kg DON 48, 24, and 1 h before the final challenge with TDI. To study subacute exposure, the mice were fed DON-contaminated rodent diet (0.3 ppm) during the experimental period. After the itch behavior and ear-swelling response were monitored, the serum, auricular lymph node, and skin tissue were collected for analyzing immunocyte differentiation, cytokine determination, and histological changes. Acute oral administration of DON significantly enhanced pro-inflammatory responses including ear-swelling response, immunocyte infiltration, and cytokine productions. Histological evaluation supported the occurrence of pro-inflammatory responses. In contrast, acute DON exposure only slightly increased itch behavior. Subacute oral exposure to DON significantly up-regulated the inflammatory responses, but showed almost no effect on pruritic response. In vitro evaluation in dendritic cells and keratinocytes indicated that DON pre-exposure induced a dose-dependent significant increase in cytokine production. Our results imply that both acute and subacute exposures to DON are associated with pro-inflammatory responses in cutaneous allergy.

Maternal Supplementation of Food Ingredient (Prebiotic) or Food Contaminant (Mycotoxin) Influences Mucosal Immune System in Piglets.

The early life period is crucial for the maturation of the intestinal barrier, its immune system, and a life-long beneficial host-microbiota interaction. The study aims to assess the impact of a beneficial dietary (short-chain fructooligosaccharides, scFOS) supplementation vs. a detrimental dietary environment (such as mycotoxin deoxynivalenol, DON) on offspring intestinal immune system developmental profiles. Sows were given scFOS-supplemented or DON-contaminated diets during the last 4 weeks of gestation, whereas force-feeding piglets with DON was performed during the first week of offspring life. Intestinal antigen-presenting cell (APC) subset frequency was analyzed by flow cytometry in the Peyer's patches and in lamina propria and the responsiveness of intestinal explants to toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands was performed using ELISA and qRT-PCR from post-natal day (PND) 10 until PND90. Perinatal exposure with scFOS did not affect the ontogenesis of APC. While it early induced inflammatory responses in piglets, scFOS further promoted the T regulatory response after TLR activation. Sow and piglet DON contamination decreased CD16+ MHCII+ APC at PND10 in lamina propria associated with IFNγ inflammation and impairment of Treg response. Our study demonstrated that maternal prebiotic supplementation and mycotoxin contamination can modulate the mucosal immune system responsiveness of offspring through different pathways.

Oral exposure of pigs to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol does not modulate the hepatic albumin synthesis during a LPS-induced acute-phase reaction.

The sensitivity of pigs to deoxynivalenol (DON) might be influenced by systemic inflammation (SI) which impacts liver. Besides following acute-phase proteins, our aim was to investigate both the hepatic fractional albumin (ALB) synthesis rate (FSR) and the ALB concentration as indicators of ALB metabolism in presence and absence of SI induced by LPS via pre- or post-hepatic venous route. Each infusion group was pre-conditioned either with a control diet (CON, 0.12 mg DON/kg diet) or with a DON-contaminated diet (DON, 4.59 mg DON/kg diet) for 4 wk. A depression of ALB FSR was observed 195 min after LPS challenge, independent of feeding group or LPS application route, which was not paralleled by a down-regulated ALB mRNA expression but by a reduced availability of free cysteine. The drop in ALB FSR only partly explained the plasma ALB concentrations which were more depressed in the DON-pre-exposed groups, suggesting that ALB levels are influenced by further mechanisms. The abundances of haptoglobin, C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A, pig major acute-phase protein, fibrinogen and LPS-binding protein mRNA were up-regulated upon LPS stimulation but not accompanied by increases in the plasma concentrations of these proteins, pointing at an imbalance between synthesis and consumption.

The impact of deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and their combination on performance, nutrient, and energy digestibility in broiler chickens.

This study evaluated the effects of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM), and their combination on growth performance, nutrient, and energy digestibility in broilers. A total of 960 Cobb-Cobb male broilers were obtained on the day of hatch and placed 10 birds per cage with 8 cages per treatment. The experiment consisted of 12 treatments: control; DON 1.5 mg/kg; DON 5.0 mg/kg; FUM 20.0 mg/kg; DON 1.5 mg/kg + FUM 20.0 mg/kg; and DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg. The remaining dietary treatments were the correlative nitrogen-free diets (NFD) for determining the endogenous nutrients loss. All birds were fed with a corn-soybean meal diet from days 1 to 15, until birds from latter 6 treatments were switched to their correlative NFD diet from days 15 to 21. Feed and BW were weighed by cage on days 8, 15, and 21. On day 21, ileal digesta was collected for digestibility determination. Both DON 1.5 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg and DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg treatments showed reduced feed intake (P ≤ 0.05) from days 8 to 15 and days 15 to 21. However, no significant effects were noted for BW gain or mortality-adjusted feed conversion ratio after adding single or combined mycotoxin on days 8 and 15. At day 21, cumulative BW gain was less (P ≤ 0.05) in birds fed with the mycotoxin combination diets than the control. No significant changes were shown for ileal endogenous amino acids losses. Control treatment had significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) apparent ileal energy digestibility than the DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20.0 mg/kg treatment (3,126 vs. 2,895 kcal/kg), representing a 5%-unit loss in apparent DM digestibility. No significant difference was found for standardized crude protein and amino acid digestibility. In conclusion, the combination of DON and FUM (DON 1.5 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg or DON 5.0 mg/kg + FUM 20 mg/kg) reduced DM and ileal energy digestibility, which negatively affected BW gain in broilers.

Efficacy of Mycotoxin Detoxifiers on Health and Growth of Newly-Weaned Pigs under Chronic Dietary Challenge of Deoxynivalenol.

The efficacy of yeast-based mycotoxin detoxifiers on health and growth performance of newly-weaned pigs (27-d-old) fed diets naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol was investigated. Sixty pigs were individually assigned to five treatments for 34 d: NC (negative control, 1.2 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol); PC (positive control, 3.2 mg/kg of deoxynivalenol); CYC (PC + clay/yeast culture-based product, 0.2%); CYE (PC + clay/yeast cell wall/plant extracts/antioxidants-based product, 0.2%); and CYB (PC + clay/inactivated yeast/botanicals/antioxidants-based product, 0.2%). Blood and jejunal mucosa were sampled, and data were analyzed using Proc Mixed of SAS with pre-planned contrasts. Deoxynivalenol reduced the average daily gain (ADG) in phase 3. Pigs fed CYC had greater overall ADG, average daily feed intake during phase 3, and gain to feed ratio during phase 2 than PC. At d 14, deoxynivalenol reduced blood urea nitrogen/creatinine and tended to reduce blood urea nitrogen. Pigs fed CYB tended to have greater aspartate aminotransferase than PC. At d 34, pigs fed CYC and CYB tended to have lower serum creatine phosphokinase than PC. Pigs fed CYE had lower blood urea nitrogen/creatinine than PC. In jejunal mucosa, deoxynivalenol tended to increase malondialdehydes and decrease glutathione. Pigs fed CYE and CYB had lower malondialdehydes, pigs fed CYB had greater glutathione and tended to have lower immunoglobulin A than PC. Pigs fed CYC and CYE tended to have lower interleukin 8 than PC. In summary, deoxynivalenol challenge (1.2 vs. 3.2 mg/kg) mildly compromised growth performance and increased the oxidative stress of pigs. Mycotoxin detoxifiers could partially overcome deoxynivalenol toxicity enhancing liver health, whereas CYE and CYB reduced oxidative stress, and CYC and CYB reduced immune activation. In conclusion, yeast-based detoxifiers with functional components as clay/inactivated yeast/botanicals/antioxidants had increased detoxifying properties in newly-weaned pigs challenged with deoxynivalenol, potentially by enhancing adsorbability, immune function, gut health, and reducing oxidative stress.

Combined effects of aflatoxin B1 and deoxynivalenol on the expression of glutathione redox system regulatory genes in common carp.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the short-term effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) and deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure on the expression of the genes encoding the glutathione redox system glutathione peroxidase 4a (gpx4a), glutathione peroxidase 4b (gpx4b), glutathione synthetase (gss) and glutathione reductase (gsr) and the oxidative stress response-related transcription factors Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (keap1) and nuclear factor-erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (nrf2) in liver, kidney and spleen of common carp. During the 24-hr long experiment, three different doses (5 µg AFB1 and 110 µg DON; 7.5 µg AFB1 and 165 µg DON or 10 µg AFB1 and 220 µg DON/kg bw) were used. The results indicated that the co-exposure of AFB1 and DON initiated free radical formation in liver, kidney and spleen, which was suggested by the increase in Nrf2 dependent genes, namely gpx4a, gpx4b, gss and gsr. Expression of keap1 gene showed upregulation after 8 hr of mycotoxin exposure, and also upregulation of nrf2 gene was found in kidney after 8 hr of exposure, while in the liver, only slight differences were observed. The changes in the expression of the analysed genes suggest that level of reactive oxygen species reached a critical level where other signalling pathway was activated as described by the hierarchical model of oxidative stress.

Beneficial Effects of Rosmarinic Acid on IPEC-J2 Cells Exposed to the Combination of Deoxynivalenol and T-2 Toxin.

Mycotoxin contamination in feedstuffs is a worldwide problem that causes serious health issues both in humans and animals, and it contributes to serious economic losses. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 toxin (T-2) are major trichothecene mycotoxins and are known to challenge mainly intestinal barrier functions. Polyphenolic rosmarinic acid (RA) appeared to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro. The aim of this study was to investigate protective effects of RA against DON and T-2 or combined mycotoxin-induced intestinal damage in nontumorigenic porcine cell line, IPEC-J2. It was ascertained that simultaneous treatment of DON and T-2 (DT2: 1 µmol/L DON + 5 nmol/L T - 2) for 48 h and 72 h reduced transepithelial electrical resistance of cell monolayer, which was restored by 50 µmol/L RA application. It was also found that DT2 for 48 h and 72 h could induce oxidative stress and elevate interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels significantly, which were alleviated by the administration of RA. DT2 administration contributed to the redistribution of claudin-1; however, occludin membranous localization was not altered by combined mycotoxin treatment. In conclusion, beneficial effect of RA was exerted on DT2-deteriorated cell monolayer integrity and on the perturbated redox status of IPEC-J2 cells.

Heme oxygenase-1 regulates autophagy through carbon-oxygen to alleviate deoxynivalenol-induced hepatic damage.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) cannot be totally removed due to its stable chemical characteristics and chronic exposure to low doses of DON causes significant toxic effects in humans and animals. However, the potential hazard of such low-dose exposure in target organs still remains not completely understood, especially in liver, which is mainly responsible for detoxification of DON. In the present study, we demonstrated for the first time that estimated human daily DON exposure (25 µg/kg bw) for 30 and 90 days caused low-grade inflammatory infiltration around hepatic centrilobular veins, elevated systemic IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α and impaired liver function evidenced by increased serum ALT activity. At the molecular level, expressions of autophagy-related proteins as well as Cleaved Caspase-3 and Cleaved Caspase-7 were upregulated during DON exposure, which indicated the activation of autophagy and apoptosis. Importantly, AAV-mediated liver-specific overexpression of HO-1 reversed DON-induced liver damages, upregulated autophagy and attenuated apoptosis in liver, while AAV-mediated HO-1 silence aggravated DON-induced liver damages, inhibited autophagy and increased apoptosis. Furthermore, in vitro experiments demonstrated that lentivirus-mediated HO-1 overexpression in Hepa 1-6 cells prolonged the duration of autophagy and delayed the onset of apoptosis. HO-1 silence in Hepa 1-6 cells inhibited activation of autophagy and accelerated occurrence of apoptosis, and these could be recovered by CO pre-treatment. Therefore, we suppose that HO-1 might be a potential research target to protect human and animal from liver injuries induced by low dose of DON exposure.

Investigation of age-related differences in toxicokinetic processes of deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in weaned piglets.

Age-related differences in toxicokinetic processes of deoxynivalenol (DON) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON3G) were studied. DON3G [55.7 µg/kg bodyweight (BW)] and an equimolar dose of DON (36 µg/kg BW) were administered to weaned piglets (4 weeks old) by single intravenous and oral administration in a double two-way cross-over design. Systemic and portal blood was sampled at different time points pre- and post-administration and plasma concentrations of DON, DON3G and their metabolites were quantified using validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) methods. Data were processed using tailor-made compartmental toxicokinetic (TK) models to accurately estimate TK parameters. Results were statistically compared to data obtained in a previous study on 11-week-old pigs using identical experimental conditions. Significant age-related differences in intestinal and systemic exposure to both DON and DON3G were noted. Most remarkably, a significant difference was found for the absorbed fraction of DON3G, after presystemic hydrolysis to DON, in weaned piglets compared to 11-week-old piglets (83% vs 16%, respectively), assumed to be mainly attributed to the higher intestinal permeability of weaned piglets. Other differences in TK parameters could be assigned to a higher water/fat body ratio and longer gastrointestinal transit time of weaned piglets. Results may further refine current risk assessment concerning DON and DON3G in animals. Additionally, since piglets possibly serve as a human paediatric surrogate model, results may be extrapolated to human infants.

Chronic ingestion of deoxynivalenol-contaminated diet dose-dependently decreases the area of myenteric neurons and gliocytes of rats.

BACKGROUND: Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium spp., is commonly found in cereals ingested by humans and animals. Its ingestion is correlated with hepatic, hematologic, renal, splenic, cardiac, gastrointestinal, and neural damages, according to dose, duration of exposure and species. In this work, the effects of the ingestion of DON-contaminated diet at concentrations considered tolerable for human and animal intake were assessed. METHODS: Male Wistar rats aging 21 days were allotted to five groups that were given, for 42 days, diets contaminated with different concentrations of DON (0, 0.2, 0.75, 1.75, and 2 mg kg-1 of chow). Food ingestion, bodyweight, oxidative status and morphometric analyses of gliocytes, and neurons of jejunal myenteric ganglia were recorded. KEY RESULTS: At these concentrations, there was no food rejection, decrease in bodyweight gain, changes in oxidative status, or loss of either neurons or gliocytes. However, DON decreased gliocyte area, general neuronal population, nitrergic, cholinergic and NADH-diaphorase positive subpopulations and, as a result, ganglion area. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES: It was concluded that, even in the absence of visible effect, DON exposure reduces cell body area of gliocytes and neurons of the myenteric plexus of the rat jejunum.

Fumonisin B1, B2 and B3 in Muscle and Liver of Broiler Chickens and Turkey Poults Fed with Diets Containing Fusariotoxins at the EU Maximum Tolerable Level.

Although provisional maximum tolerable daily intake and recommended guidelines have been established for fumonisins (FB) in food, few data are available concerning levels of FB in edible animal tissues. Such data are of particular interest in avian species that can tolerate relatively high levels of fumonisins in their feed. Also, even if multiple contamination of animal feed by toxins produced by Fusarium is very frequent, little is known about the consequences of multiple contamination for FB levels in tissues. The aim of this study was to analyze the concentrations of FB in the muscle and liver of chickens and turkeys fed with FB alone and with FB combined with deoxynivalenol (DON), and with zearalenone (ZEN). Experimental diets were formulated by incorporating ground cultured toxigenic Fusarium strains in corn-soybean based feeds. Control diets were free of mycotoxins, FB diets contained 20 mg FB1+FB2/kg, and FBDONZEN diets contained 20, 5, and 0.5 mg/kg of FB1+FB2, DON, and ZEN, respectively. Animals were reared in individual cages with free access to water and feed. The feed was distributed to male Ross chickens from the 1st to the 35th day of age and to male Grade Maker turkeys from the 55th to the 70th day of age. On the last day of the study, the birds were starved for eight hours, killed, and autopsied for tissues sampling. No sign of toxicity was observed. A UHPLC-MS/MS method with isotopic dilution and immunoaffinity clean-up of samples has been developed for analysis of FB in muscle (n = 8 per diet) and liver (n = 8 per diet). Only traces of FB that were below the LOQ of 0.25 µg/kg were found in most of the samples of animals fed with the control diets. Mean concentrations of FB1, FB2, and FB3 in muscle were 17.5, 3.39, and 1.26 µg/kg, respectively, in chickens, and 5.77, 1.52, and 0.54 µg/kg in turkeys, respectively. In the liver, the respective FB1, FB2, and FB3 concentrations were 44.7, 2.61, and 0.79 µg/kg in chickens, and 41.47, 4.23, and 1.41 µg/kg, in turkeys. Cumulated level of FB1+FB2+FB3 in the highly contaminated samples were above 60 and 100 µg/kg in muscle and liver, respectively. The concentrations of FB in the tissues of animals fed the FBDONZEN diet did not greatly differ from the concentrations measured in animals fed the diet containing only FB.

The Effect of Low and High Dose Deoxynivalenol on Intestinal Morphology, Distribution, and Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines of Weaning Rabbits.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a potential pathogenic factor to humans and animals, and intestinal tract is the primary target organ of DON. Data concerning the effects of DON on rabbits are scarce, especially for weaning rabbits. In this study, 45 weaning rabbits (35 d) were randomly and equally assigned into three groups. Group A was fed basic diet, while groups B and C were added DON at 0.5 mg/kg BW/d and 1.5 mg/kg BW/d, respectively, based on the basic diet. The experiment lasted for 24 days and the intestinal morphology, expression, and distribution of several cytokines in intestinal segments have been examined. The results indicated that ADG decreased while F/G increased significantly compared with the control group after DON added at 1.5 mg/kg BW/d. Some of the morphometric parameters (villi length, crypt depth, and goblet cells density) changed after DON was added. Meanwhile, the concentration as well as the expression levels of relative protein and mRNA of IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-6, and IL-8 increased significantly. The immunohistochemistry results illustrated that the quantity and distribution of positive cells of inflammatory cytokines were changed after DON was added. In conclusion, the addition of DON damaged the intestinal morphology and changed the distribution and expression of inflammatory cytokines. The toxic effect depended on the dosage of DON.

Effects of deoxynivalenol and sodium meta-bisulphite on nutrient digestibility in growing pigs.

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin synthesised by the Fusarium, is known to affect the growth of pigs. This effect can be attenuated with sodium meta-bisulphite (SBS). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of SBS with antioxidant blend on nutrient digestibility in pigs fed a diet contaminated naturally with DON. Six crossbred castrated pigs fitted surgically with single-T cannulas in the distal ileum received one of four barley-corn-soybean diets with or without SBS. After 8 d of feeding, faeces and ileal digesta were collected for 2 d. Apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of the dry matter (DM), energy, nutrients and DON, and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM, acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), energy and DON were evaluated. The AID of phosphorus, calcium and some amino acids was increased (p < 0.05) in the DON diets whereas the ATTD of DM and energy tended to decrease (p = 0.064 and p = 0.071). SBS reduced the AID of DM, energy, ADF, ether extract, phosphorus and DON (p < 0.05) but had no effect on the ATTD of DM, energy, fibre or DON. These results show that DON improved the AID of some nutrients but tended to reduce the ATTD of energy, which could explain, although anorexia is the main effect of DON on live weight gain, the reported negative effect of DON on pig growth. Finally, SBS with antioxidant blend had reduced AID of some nutrients and intestinal absorption of DON.

Individual and combined toxicity of T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol on human C-28/I2 and rat primary chondrocytes.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 toxin are prevalent mycotoxin contaminants in the food and feed stuffs worldwide, with non-negligible co-contamination and co-exposure conditions. Meanwhile, they are considerable risk factors for Kashin-Beck disease, a chronic endemic osteochondropathy. The aim of this study was to investigate the individual and combined cytotoxicity of DON and T-2 toxin on proliferating human C-28/I2 and newborn rat primary costal chondrocytes by MTT assay. Four molar concentration combination ratios of DON and T-2 toxin were used, 1:1 for R1 mixture, 10:1 for R10, 100:1 for R100 and 1000:1 for R1000. The toxicological interactions were quantified by the MixLow method. DON, T-2 toxin, and their mixtures all showed a clear dose-dependent toxicity for chondrocytes. The cytotoxicity of T-2 toxin was 285-fold higher than DON was in human chondrocytes, and 22-fold higher in the rat chondrocytes. The combination of DON and T-2 toxin was significantly synergistic at middle and high level concentrations of R10 mixtures in rat chondrocytes, but significantly antagonistic at the low concentrations of R100 mixtures in both cells and at the middle concentrations of R1000 mixtures in rat chondrocytes. These results indicated that the combined toxicity was influenced by the cell sensitivity for toxins, the difference between the combination ratio and equitoxic ratio, the concentrations and other factors.

In silico and in vitro prediction of the toxicological effects of individual and combined mycotoxins.

3-Acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON) and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-AcDON) are converted to deoxynivalenol (DON) in vivo and their simultaneous presence may increase DON intake. Mixtures of DON and its derivatives are a public health concern. In this study DON, 3-AcDON and 15-AcDON were evaluated in vitro and in silico. The in vitro cytotoxicity of DON and its derivatives individually and combined was determined by the Neutral Red (NR) assay in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells. The concentrations tested were from 1.25 to 15 µM (DON) and from 0.937 to 7.5 µM (DON derivatives). The IC50 values were from >15 to 2.55 µM (DON), from 1.77 to 1.02 µM (3-AcDON), and from 4.05 to 1.68 µM (15-AcDON). 3-AcDON was the most cytotoxic molecule in HepG2 cells. The concentrations tested in combinations ranged from 0.5625 to 4.5 µM (DON), and from 0.094 to 0.75 µM (DON derivatives), with ratios of 1:6 (DON+3-AcDON and DON+15-AcDON), 1:1 (3-AcDON+15-AcDON) and 1:6:6 (DON+3-AcDON+15-AcDON). The DON+15-AcDON mixture exhibited additive effects, while the rest showed synergistic effects. In silico methods assess individual mycotoxins. Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Toxicity of mycotoxins were predicted using in silico SwissADME tools. Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion profile prediction shows high gastrointestinal absorption and CYP3A4 mediated metabolism.

First study on trichothecene and zearalenone exposure of the Romanian population through wheat-based products consumption.

In this study, a dietary exposure assessment of mycotoxins was conducted for the Romanian population using the contamination data of a various categories of wheat-based products for direct human consumption. Wheat-based foods (n = 181) commercialized in Romania, including flour, bread, biscuits, breakfast cereals and pasta, were evaluated by GC-QqQ-MS/MS for the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3AcDON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15AcDON), fusarenon-X, nivalenol, HT-2 and T-2 toxins, diacetoxyscirpenol, neosolaniol and zearalenone (ZEA). DON and 15AcDON were detected in 63 and 5% of all the analyzed samples, whereas 13-AcDON, HT-2, T-2, NIV and ZEA were not detected. Exposure of Romanian adult population was assessed, the EDIs for the sum of DON+3AcDON+15AcDON were 669 ng kg-1 bw day-1 at low-bound estimation, and 690 ng kg-1 bw day-1 at upper-bound estimation, being lower than the TDI set (1000 ng kg-1 bw day-1).

Effects of dietary deoxynivalenol or ochratoxin A on performance and selected health indices in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar).

Post-smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were fed with standard feed added one of five concentrations of either pure deoxynivalenol (DON; 0.5-6 mg/kg) or pure ochratoxin A (OTA; 0.2-2.4 mg/kg), or no added toxins for up to 8 weeks. Performance effects (feed intake, feed efficiency, gain, length and condition factor), various clinical biochemical parameters, packed cell volume and vaccination response against Aeromonas salmonicidae were all inversely correlated with DON dose, whereas relative liver weight increased with DON dose. In fish fed OTA, however, the effects at the doses tested were rather small. We observed no effects of OTA exposure on performance parameters, but some clinical biochemical parameters tended to increase with OTA dose primarily at 3 weeks, and compared with controls OTA exposure caused increased mRNA expression of two immune markers in the spleen. No liver histopathological effects were found from DON or OTA exposure. For DON, we derived a BMDL20 of 0.3 mg/kg feed for reduced total protein in plasma, a BMDL5 of 0.5 mg/kg feed for reduced condition factor, and a NOAEL of 1 mg/kg feed for DON. For OTA, a BMDL or NOAEL could not be derived (>2.4 mg/kg).