The political economy of bovine tuberculosis in Great Britain.

A brief history of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) and its control in Great Britain (GB) is presented. Numerous diverse policies to control the disease in humans, cattle and wildlife have been pursued over the last 100 years and many millions of pounds have been spent. After notable success in reducing the incidence and prevalence of bTB in cattle in GB from the 1950s to the mid-1980s, the geographical spread of the disease and the number of cattle slaughtered have increased continually since that time, with a high point of bTB incidence in 2008. This increase appeared to coincide with changing policy regarding the control of the disease in badgers, with a more humane approach adopted and with strengthened protection for badgers through legislation. Indeed, there has been much controversy in the debate on the role of badgers in disease transmission to cattle and the need for their control as vectors of the disease. The issue has attracted the attention of the media and there have been various commissioned research projects, trials and public consultations. The findings of two social science investigations presented as examples showed that citizens generally believed that bTB in cattle is an important issue that needs to be tackled, but objected to badgers being killed, whilst cattle farmers were willing to pay around £17/animal/year for a bTB cattle vaccine. It is noted that successes regarding the control of bTB in other countries have combined both cattle and wildlife controls and involved industry working in close partnership with government.

L'auteur retrace brièvement l'histoire de la tuberculose bovine et de la lutte contre cette maladie en Grande-Bretagne. Diverses mesures sanitaires ont été appliquées au cours des cent dernières années afin de maîtriser la maladie chez l'homme, chez les bovins et dans la faune sauvage, pour une dépense totale de plusieurs millions de livres. Après la chute remarquable de l'incidence et de la prévalence de la tuberculose bovine en Grande-Bretagne enregistrée depuis les années 50, la situation s'est inversée au milieu des années 80 et tant la distribution géographique de la maladie que le nombre de bovins abattus n'ont cessé de croître depuis cette date, l'année 2008 marquant le pic de l'incidence de la tuberculose bovine. Il est désormais établi que cette hausse a coïncidé avec l'évolution des politiques de lutte contre la tuberculose chez les blaireaux, à la faveur d'une approche plus respectueuse du bien-être animal qui s'est traduite par une protection renforcée des blaireaux dans la législation. En effet, le rôle des blaireaux dans la transmission de la tuberculose aux bovins et l'impératif de lutter contre les blaireaux en tant que vecteurs ont fait l'objet de très fortes controverses. Cette question a attiré l'attention des médias et il y a eu de nombreux projets de recherche commandités sur le sujet, d'expériences et de consultations publiques. D'après deux enquêtes sociologiques citées par l'auteur, les citoyens étaient généralement convaincus de l'importance de la tuberculose chez les bovins et de la nécessité de s'y attaquer mais ils s'opposaient aux mesures d'abattage des blaireaux, tandis que les éleveurs de bovins étaient disposés à payer environ 17 livres par bovin et par année pour pouvoir vacciner leurs bovins contre la tuberculose bovine. L'auteur fait observer que les succès enregistrés dans d'autres pays dans la lutte contre la tuberculose bovine sont liés à l'application combinée de mesures de contrôle chez les bovins et dans la faune sauvage et à une étroite collaboration entre les éleveurs et le gouvernement.

El autor repasa sucintamente la historia de la tuberculosis bovina y de su control en Gran Bretaña. En los últimos 100 años se han aplicado numerosas y variadas políticas y se han invertido muchos millones de libras para combatir la enfermedad en el ser humano, el ganado vacuno y la fauna silvestre. Entre mediados del decenio de 1950 y mediados del de 1980 se trabajó con notable éxito para reducir la incidencia y prevalencia de la enfermedad en el ganado vacuno británico. Pero a partir de ahí hubo una progresión constante en la propagación geográfica de la enfermedad y en el número de cabezas de ganado sacrificadas, con un máximo de incidencia registrado en 2008. Tal incremento parece coincidir con una inflexión de la política aplicada para luchar contra la enfermedad en los tejones, con la adopción de métodos más clementes y de medidas legislativas que instauraban un mayor nivel de protección de los tejones. Ha habido en efecto una gran controversia acerca del papel de los tejones en los procesos de transmisión de la enfermedad al ganado vacuno y la necesidad de controlar a esos animales como vectores de la infección. El tema ha suscitado gran atención mediática y ha sido objeto de una serie de proyectos de investigación, experimentos y consultas públicas. Según demuestran las conclusiones de dos investigaciones de ciencias sociales presentadas como ejemplo, en general los ciudadanos pensaban que la tuberculosis bovina en el ganado era un problema importante al que había que dar respuesta, pero se oponían al sacrificio de los tejones, a la vez que los ganaderos estaban dispuestos a pagar alrededor de 17 libras/animal/año por la vacunación antituberculosa de sus rebaños vacunos. El autor señala que los éxitos obtenidos en otros países a la hora de combatir la tuberculosis bovina pasan por instaurar controles a la vez en el ganado y en la fauna silvestre y por lograr que la industria trabaje en estrecha asociación con las instancias públicas.

Entangled Histories: German Veterinary Medicine, c.1770-1900.

Medical historians have recently become interested in the veterinary past, investigating the development of animal health in countries such as France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. An appreciation of the German context, however, is still lacking - a gap in the knowledge that the present article seeks to fill. Providing a critical interpretation of the evolution of the veterinary profession, this investigation explains why veterinary and medical spheres intersected, drifted apart, then came back together; it also accounts for the stark differences in the position of veterinarians in Germany and Britain. Emphasis is placed on how diverse traditions, interests and conceptualisations of animal health shaped the German veterinary profession, conditioned its field of operation, influenced its choice of animals and diseases, and dictated the speed of reform. Due to a state-oriented model of professionalisation, veterinarians became more enthusiastic about public service than private practice, perceiving themselves to be alongside doctors and scientists in status, rather than next to animal healers or manual labourers. Building on their expertise in epizootics, veterinarians became involved in zoonoses, following outbreaks of trichinosis. They achieved a dominant position in meat hygiene by refashioning abattoirs into sites for the construction of veterinary knowledge. Later, bovine tuberculosis helped veterinarians cement this position, successfully showcasing their expertise and contribution to society by saving as much meat as possible from diseased livestock. Ultimately, this article shows how veterinarians were heavily 'entangled' with the fields of medicine, food, agriculture and the military.

Mycobacterium bovis in Panama, 2013.

Panama remains free of zoonotic tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis. However, DNA fingerprinting of 7 M. bovis isolates from a 2013 bovine tuberculosis outbreak indicated minimal homology with strains previously circulating in Panama. M. bovis dispersion into Panama highlights the need for enhanced genotype testing to track zoonotic infections.

A history of bovine tuberculosis eradication policy in Northern Ireland.

Despite many years of state-sponsored efforts to eradicate the disease from cattle through testing and slaughter, bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is still regarded as the most important and complex of animal health challenges facing the British livestock agricultural industry. This paper provides a historical analysis of the ongoing bTB statutory eradication programme in one part of the UK - Northern Ireland (NI) - which began in 1949 as a voluntary scheme, but between 1959 and 1960 became compulsory for all cattle herd-owners. Tracing bTB back through time sets the eradication efforts of the present day within a deeper context, and provides signposts for what developed in subsequent decades. The findings are based primarily on empirical research using historical published reports of the Ministry of Agriculture and state documents held in the public archives in NI, and they emphasize the need to consider the economic, social and political contexts of disease eradication efforts and their influences on both the past and the present.

Epidemiological investigation of bovine tuberculosis herd breakdowns in Spain 2009/2011.

We analyzed the most likely cause of 687 bovine tuberculosis (bTB) breakdowns detected in Spain between 2009 and 2011 (i.e., 22% of the total number of breakdowns detected during this period). Seven possible causes were considered: i) residual infection; ii) introduction of infected cattle from other herds; iii) sharing of pastures with infected herds; iv) contiguous spread from infected neighbor herds; v) presence of infected goats in the farm; vi) interaction with wildlife reservoirs and vii) contact with an infected human. For each possible cause a decision tree was developed and key questions were included in each of them. Answers to these key questions lead to different events within each decision tree. In order to assess the likelihood of occurrence of the different events a qualitative risk assessment approach was used. For this purpose, an expert opinion workshop was organized and ordinal values, ranging from 0 to 9 (i.e., null to very high likelihood of occurrence) were assigned. The analysis identified residual infection as the most frequent cause of bTB breakdowns (22.3%; 95%CI: 19.4-25.6), followed by interaction with wildlife reservoirs (13.1%; 95%CI: 10.8-15.8). The introduction of infected cattle, sharing of pastures and contiguous spread from infected neighbour herds were also identified as relevant causes. In 41.6% (95%CI: 38.0-45.4) of the breakdowns the origin of infection remained unknown. Veterinary officers conducting bTB breakdown investigations have to state their opinion about the possible cause of each breakdown. Comparison between the results of our analysis and the opinion from veterinary officers revealed a slight concordance. This slight agreement might reflect a lack of harmonized criteria to assess the most likely cause of bTB breakdowns as well as different perceptions about the importance of the possible causes. This is especially relevant in the case of the role of wildlife reservoirs.

Bovine tuberculosis vaccine research: historical perspectives and recent advances.

The emergence of wildlife reservoirs of Mycobacterium bovis infection in cattle as well as increased inter-regional trade with associated spread of M. bovis has led to renewed interest in the use of vaccines for the control of bovine tuberculosis (TB). Field efficacy trials performed in the early 20th century demonstrated the partial effectiveness of bacilli Calmette-Guerin (BCG) for the control of bovine TB. Recent experimental trials with cattle have demonstrated that: (1) subunit vaccines may boost immunity elicited by BCG in cattle, (2) T cell central memory immune responses evoked by protective vaccines correlate with protection upon subsequent M. bovis challenge, (3) BCG is particularly protective when administered to neonates, and (4) differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA) is feasible in cattle using in vitro or in vivo methods. In regards to wildlife reservoirs, the efficacy of BCG delivered orally has been demonstrated for brushtail possums (in field trials) as well as Eurasian badgers, wild boar, and white-tailed deer (each in experimental challenge studies). Vaccine delivery to wildlife reservoirs will primarily be oral, although a parenteral route is being deployed for badgers in England. Vaccine efficacy trials, both experimental challenge and field studies, with cattle and their wildlife reservoirs represent a primary example of the one health approach, with outcomes relevant for both veterinary and medical applications.

'Filthy vessels': milk safety and attempts to restrict the spread of bovine tuberculosis in Queensland.

Bovine tuberculosis is a dangerous mycobacterium that can be conveyed to humans in the meat and milk of cattle. By the mid-1800s, when health scientists began arguing about its zoonotic potential and danger to humans, the disease was well established in Australian cattle herds. This article examines the Queensland response to bovine tuberculosis from the late 1800s to the 1940s, when the problem of tubercular cattle could no longer be ignored. It shows that despite widespread concern about milk safety and increasing knowledge of the disease's aetiology, the Queensland government directed its milk safety activities towards public health education rather than the inadequacies of the dairy industry's approach to bovine tuberculosis. As such, it was tardy in addressing bovine tuberculosis.

Meat as a vector of transmission of bovine tuberculosis to humans in Spain: a historical perspective.

If we consult current treatises that address tuberculosis infection by Mycobacterium bovis, we find that they neglect meat or accord it very little importance as a vector of transmission of tuberculosis to humans. However, several decades ago, the books of Veterinary Inspection concerning food dedicated numerous pages to tuberculosis in meat and the seizure of consumptive animals. The criteria or attitudes concerning meat from tuberculosis-infected animals have fluctuated over time, from rigorous extremes that, on one hand, required the seizure and destruction of the food products obtained from infected animals from a strictly hygienic measure, to other more practical considerations applying economic arguments, and which accepted the conditional use of these products due to the universal shortage of animal proteins. Consequently, the use or non-use of meat from animals infected with tuberculosis became one of the questions that prompted the greatest concern amongst researches and technicians. It is for these reasons that this paper addresses the history of meat as a vehicle of zoonotic transmission, highlighting its importance and repercussions on health inspections of meat in abattoirs.

The importance of Mycobacterium bovis as a zoonosis.

Mycobacterium bovis and closely associated acid-fast bacilli cause disease in humans. Epidemiologic investigations reveal that the organism may be ingested or inhaled. Extra pulmonary lesions may occur associated to the consumption of infected milk, even though with the practice of boiling milk, and the growth of milk pasteurization plants all over the world, the digestive route of infection became less important. On the other hand, airborne infection continues to occur among meat industry and slaughterhouse workers, in regions where the infection is still prevalent in cattle. Evidence of person to person transmission is rare. Main causes of concern related to M. bovis in industrialized countries are: epizootics in domesticated and wild mammals and latent infection in immigrants. Although multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains of M. bovis have been identified, case reports reveal that anti-tuberculosis drugs routinely used to treat Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected patients are effective when properly administered.

A review of tuberculosis science and policy in Great Britain.

Bovine tuberculosis is one of the most complex animal health problems that the farming industry in Great Britain faces today. In leading and facilitating the changes to policy required to reverse the long-term upward trend in the disease, Government is heavily reliant on evidence emerging from its wide-ranging bovine tuberculosis research programme. The paper outlines development of policy in Great Britain and its relationship to research findings.