COVID-Related Financial Issues Experienced by Women-Identifying Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had significant impacts on the economic well-being of women, particularly those experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV). While some scholars have included common economic risk factors in their studies on COVID-related IPV experiences, fewer have looked specifically at the nature of the financial issues experienced. As such, the purpose of this study was to better understand the types of financial issues that survivors experienced because of the COVID-19 pandemic and their association with different forms of IPV. In July 2022, a sample of 571 women-identifying IPV survivors living in the United States participated in an online survey via Qualtrics panel service. The mean age of participants was 42, and 69% identified as White, non-Hispanic. On average, participants experienced approximately three COVID-related financial issues. After controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, economic abuse and economic abuse-related financial debt were both significantly associated with COVID-related financial issues. Study findings have important implications for economically supporting IPV survivors through research, policy, and practice.

Associations between intimate partner violence and women's labor market outcomes in Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Little is known regarding economic impacts of intimate partner violence (IPV) in humanitarian settings, especially the labor market burden. Examining costs of IPV beyond the health burden may provide new information to help with resource allocation for addressing IPV, including within conflict zones. This paper measures the incidence and prevalence of different types of IPV, the potential relationship between IPV and labor market activity, and estimating the cost of these IPV-associated labor market differentials. METHODS: The association between labor market outcomes, IPV experience, and conflict exposure among women ages 15-49 in Nigeria were studied using the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey and 2013-17 Uppsala Conflict Data Program data. Descriptive analysis was used to identify patterns of IPV and labor outcomes by region. Based on this, multivariable logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between labor market participation and lifetime IPV exposure. These models were combined with earnings data from the United Nations Human Development Report 2021/2022 and a top-down costing approach to quantify the impacts in terms of lost productivity to the Nigerian economy. RESULTS: Substantial differences in IPV exposure and labor market outcomes were found between conflict and non-conflict-affected areas. Women with past year or lifetime exposure to physical, emotional, or "any" IPV were more likely to withdraw from the labor market in the past year, although no differences were found for sexual IPV or conflict-affected regions. We estimate an average reduction of 4.14% in the likelihood of working, resulting in nearly $3.0 billion USD of lost productivity, about 1% of Nigeria's total economic output. CONCLUSIONS: Increased odds of labor market withdraw were associated with several measures of IPV. Withdrawal from the formal labor market sector has a substantial associated economic cost for all of Nigerian society. If stronger prevention measures reduce the incidence of IPV against women in Nigeria, a substantial portion of lost economic costs likely could be reclaimed. These costs underscore the economic case, alongside the moral imperative, for stronger protections against IPV for girls and women in Nigeria.

Assessing the durability of a cash transfer on physical intimate partner violence and sexual relationships among adolescent girls and young women in rural South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: Cash transfers can reduce adolescent girls and young women's (AGYW) risk of intimate partner violence (IPV). In our own cash transfer intervention (HPTN 068), AGYW who received a cash transfer were less likely to experience IPV than non-recipients, in part because the cash reduced their engagement in sexual partnerships. This mixed-methods study builds on earlier findings to examine whether the protective effects were sustained after the cash ended and when the cash transfer was the most impactful. METHODS: HPTN 068 was an experimental HIV prevention intervention trial. AGYW who participated completed 3 annual surveys during the intervention and an additional survey 2.5 years post-intervention. We used log-binomial regression models to assess the durability of the cash transfer on outcomes and included an interaction term in models to examine when effects were largest. We analyzed qualitative interviews conducted after the cash ended to contextualize findings. RESULTS: Post-intervention, the relative risk of physical IPV was lower among AGYW who received it compared to those who did not, but not statistically significant (RR: 0.83, 95% CI: 0.62, 1.10). AGYW who received the cash transfer also had a lower relative risk of ever having had sex and of having any sexual partner in the last 12 months (RR: 0.94, 95% CI: 0.88, 1.01; RR: 0.94; 95% CI: 0.88, 0.99, respectively). The protective effect of the cash transfer on physical IPV was highest in Years 1 and 2 (RR: 0.64; 95% CI: 0.55-0.75 and RR: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.55-0.77, respectively). Qualitative data corroborated the quantitative findings. CONCLUSION: The cash transfer reduced AGYW's risk of IPV, though effects were attenuated after the cash ended. Provision of cash during adolescence - a period when AGYW are highly susceptible to IPV and HIV - may empower them in their current relationship and yield long term health benefits.

Intimate Partner Violence, Economic Insecurity, and Health Outcomes Among American Indian and Alaska Native Men and Women: Findings From a National Sample.

Limited data are available on experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual violence (SV) and health outcomes among American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) populations. This study explores the relationship between IPV and SV, food insecurity, housing insecurity, healthcare access, and self-reported physical and mental health status in a nationally representative sample of AIAN adults (N = 3,634). IPV and SV were associated with poorer physical and mental health at the bivariate level, but not in multivariate analyses. Economic inequalities are a salient predictor of health and may be compounded by demographic and geographic contexts.

Associations of intimate partner violence and financial adversity with familial homelessness in pregnant and postpartum women: A 7-year prospective study of the ALSPAC cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether emotional and physical intimate partner violence (IPV) and financial adversity increase risk of incident homelessness in pregnancy and the post-partum period. STUDY DESIGN: Data were drawn from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, which starting in 1990 mailed questionnaires to 14,735 mothers in the UK, over 7 years from pregnancy onwards. Marginal structural models and multiple imputation were used to address time-varying confounding of the primary variables, testing for interaction between concurrent emotional/physical IPV and financial adversity, and adjusted for baseline age, ethnicity, education, partner's alcohol use, parity, depression, and social class. RESULTS: Emotional IPV (HR 1.44 (1.13,1.84)), physical IPV (HR 2.05 (1.21,3.49)), and financial adversity (HR 1.59 (1.44,1.77)) each predicted a multiplicative increase in the discrete-time hazard of incident homelessness. We identified joint effects for concurrent emotional IPV and financial adversity (HR 2.09 (1.35,3.22)) and concurrent physical IPV and financial adversity (HR 2.79 (1.21,6.44)). We further identified a temporary decline in self-reported physical IPV among mothers during pregnancy and up to 8 months post-partum. CONCLUSIONS: Emotional and physical IPV and financial adversity independently and jointly increase the risk of incident homelessness. The effects of emotional and physical IPV are comparable to or greater than the risk of financial adversity. Homelessness prevention policies should consider IPV victims as high-risk, regardless of financial status. Furthermore, self-reported physical IPV declines temporarily during pregnancy and up to 8 months post-partum. Screening for IPV in this period may miss high-risk individuals.

Evaluation of an unconditional cash transfer program targeting children's first-1,000-days linear growth in rural Togo: A cluster-randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: In 2014, the government of Togo implemented a pilot unconditional cash transfer (UCT) program in rural villages that aimed at improving children's nutrition, health, and protection. It combined monthly UCTs (approximately US$8.40 /month) with a package of community activities (including behavior change communication [BCC] sessions, home visits, and integrated community case management of childhood illnesses and acute malnutrition [ICCM-Nut]) delivered to mother-child pairs during the first "1,000 days" of life. We primarily investigated program impact at population level on children's height-for-age z-scores (HAZs) and secondarily on stunting (HAZ < -2) and intermediary outcomes including household's food insecurity, mother-child pairs' diet and health, delivery in a health facility and low birth weight (LBW), women's knowledge, and physical intimate partner violence (IPV). METHODS AND FINDINGS: We implemented a parallel-cluster-randomized controlled trial, in which 162 villages were randomized into either an intervention arm (UCTs + package of community activities, n = 82) or a control arm (package of community activities only, n = 80). Two different representative samples of children aged 6-29 months and their mothers were surveyed in each arm, one before the intervention in 2014 (control: n = 1,301, intervention: n = 1,357), the other 2 years afterwards in 2016 (control: n = 996, intervention: n = 1,035). Difference-in-differences (DD) estimates of impact were calculated, adjusting for clustering. Children's average age was 17.4 (± 0.24 SE) months in the control arm and 17.6 (± 0.19 SE) months in the intervention arm at baseline. UCTs had a protective effect on HAZ (DD = +0.25 z-scores, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.01-0.50, p = 0.039), which deteriorated in the control arm while remaining stable in the intervention arm, but had no impact on stunting (DD = -6.2 percentage points [pp], relative odds ratio [ROR]: 0.74, 95% CI: 0.51-1.06, p = 0.097). UCTs positively impacted both mothers' and children's (18-23 months) consumption of animal source foods (ASFs) (respectively, DD = +4.5 pp, ROR: 2.24, 95% CI: 1.09-4.61, p = 0.029 and DD = +9.1 pp, ROR: 2.65, 95% CI: 1.01-6.98, p = 0.048) and household food insecurity (DD = -10.7 pp, ROR: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.43-0.91, p = 0.016). UCTs did not impact on reported child morbidity 2 week's prior to report (DD = -3.5 pp, ROR: 0.80, 95% CI: 0.56-1.14, p = 0.214) but reduced the financial barrier to seeking healthcare for sick children (DD = -26.4 pp, ROR: 0.23, 95% CI: 0.08-0.66, p = 0.006). Women who received cash had higher odds of delivering in a health facility (DD = +10.6 pp, ROR: 1.53, 95% CI: 1.10-2.13, p = 0.012) and lower odds of giving birth to babies with birth weights (BWs) <2,500 g (DD = -11.8, ROR: 0.29, 95% CI: 0.10-0.82, p = 0.020). Positive effects were also found on women's knowledge (DD = +14.8, ROR: 1.86, 95% CI: 1.32-2.62, p < 0.001) and physical IPV (DD = -7.9 pp, ROR: 0.60, 95% CI: 0.36-0.99, p = 0.048). Study limitations included the short evaluation period (24 months) and the low coverage of UCTs, which might have reduced the program's impact. CONCLUSIONS: UCTs targeting the first "1,000 days" had a protective effect on child's linear growth in rural areas of Togo. Their simultaneous positive effects on various immediate, underlying, and basic causes of malnutrition certainly contributed to this ultimate impact. The positive impacts observed on pregnancy- and birth-related outcomes call for further attention to the conception period in nutrition-sensitive programs. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN Registry ISRCTN83330970.

The Experiences of Domestic Violence Shelter Workers and Their Perceptions of Shelter Services: A Preliminary Study.

With domestic violence shelters faced with the persistent and arduous challenge of intimate partner violence, using an online survey, we explored the experiences of 98 shelter workers, including their perceptions of shelter services. Findings revealed that a majority of respondents (94%) indicated that through their work, they have had a positive influence on shelter residents. Moreover, 68% agreed that shelters are successful with providing services that will aid women in becoming self-sufficient, and 94% would like to see shelters have a greater impact on helping women find the pathway to economic independence. Thirty-six and 39% of participants, respectively, endorsed items about compassion fatigue and secondary trauma, and slightly more than half (51%) were frustrated by their work. Challenges in the provision of services included lack of funding, housing, and mental health and communal living issues. Incorporation of wellness efforts and self-care practices are encouraged in order for shelter workers to reduce susceptibility to compassion fatigue and secondary trauma.

The prevalence, patterning and associations with depressive symptoms and self-rated health of emotional and economic intimate partner violence: a three-country population based study.

BACKGROUND: Emotional and economic intimate partner violence (IPV) are common. There remain outstanding questions: 1) whether the patterning of emotional and economic IPV varies across contexts, and whether the current indicators adequately capture this variation; 2) whether simply binary or more complex modelling strategies are appropriate; 3) whether health impacts of emotional and economic IPV are sustained in population-based studies, across multiple settings. METHODS: Ever partnered women (18-49 years) in cross-sectional, population-based data from three countries, China, Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Sri Lanka, from the United Nations Multi-country Study on Men and Violence in Asia and the Pacific. We assessed lifetime experience of emotional IPV (5 items) and economic IPV (4 items), item uniqueness (ie, the extent to which a person only reported that item), and descriptive associations and multivariable regression between combinations of emotional and economic IPV and physical and/or sexual IPV, for depressive symptoms and generalized health. RESULTS: In all countries, lifetime emotional and economic IPV were common. By item, only one emotional IPV item (he hurt others of importance) had <3% of women uniquely identified by it. There was no item with low uniqueness for economic IPV. By item, and the entire scale, two or more experiences of emotional IPV, or economic IPV, were consistently associated with worse depression and generalized health. Emotional IPV was independently associated with higher depressive scores, and emotional IPV was independently associated with worse generalised health scores, across multiple models. Women experiencing physical and/or sexual IPV combined with emotional or economic IPV, reported the highest depressive symptoms and worst generalised health scores. CONCLUSIONS: Emotional IPV and economic IPV are more, or as, common as physical IPV and sexual IPV in three countries in Asia-Pacific. The current set of emotional and economic items captures a range of unique instances of IPV and that forms of emotional and economic IPV are patterned across different contexts. In addition, the use of a simple binary coding of these scales provides a robust way of providing a measure of health impact. The simplicity of this approach enables replication and standardization of measurement of these key constructs across multiple settings, enabling comparison.

Risk Factors for and Mental Well-Being Outcomes of Economic Abuse in Hong Kong Chinese Population.

Although economic abuse is one of the major tactics of intimate partner violence, there has been a lack of empirical evidence on the factors associated with economic abuse and its mental well-being outcomes in Chinese population. This study aimed to identify risk factors for and mental well-being of economic abuse in Chinese population. This was a cross-sectional household survey with 504 Chinese adults in Hong Kong. It was found that unmarried individuals and individuals with tertiary education or above were at risk of economic abuse. Moreover, there were significant association between economic abuse experience and anxiety, depression, and psychosomatic symptoms. Resilience was the protective factor against anxiety, depression, and psychosomatic symptoms. The findings were discussed alongside with Chinese culture.

Measurement of Economic Abuse Among Women Not Seeking Social or Support Services and Dwelling in the Community.

Scholars have defined economic abuse (EA) as tactics used by abusive partners to undermine the self-sufficiency and economic self-efficacy of survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, no measures of EA have been tested in non-IPV-service seeking samples. The current study assesses the psychometric properties of the Scale of Economic Abuse (SEA)-12 (Postmus, Plummer, & Stylianou, 2016) in a nonservice seeking sample of adult females attending community college. A quantitative web-based survey was administered to a simple random sample of female community college students (n = 435). Analyses included confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA). CFA indicated a poor fit for the three-factor model of the SEA-12 in this sample. The results of the EFA found a single factor model retaining four items (the Scale of Economic Abuse-Short, or SEAS). Women are experiencing EA outside of IPV service-seeking populations, and that tactics of economic control seem to be central to EA in this sample.

The Frequency, Nature, and Effects of Coerced Debt Among a National Sample of Women Seeking Help for Intimate Partner Violence.

This study examines the frequency, nature, and effects of coerced debt, defined as non-consensual, credit-related transactions that occur in intimate relationships where one partner uses coercive control to dominate the other. The sample includes 1,823 women who called the National Domestic Violence Hotline. Results suggest that coerced debt, from both coercive and fraudulent transactions, is a common problem and is significantly related to control over financial information, credit damage, and financial dependence on the abuser. This study supports the need for policy reform and victim services aimed at addressing coerced debt, thereby mitigating a potentially significant economic barrier to safety.

Developing a Theory of Economic Solvency for Women Who Have Experienced Intimate Partner Violence.

Poverty and intimate partner violence create a cycle that is difficult for women to escape. To create programs to help women escape the cycle, a full understanding of economic solvency is needed. A Model of Economic Solvency has been created, and this Grounded Theory study serves to validate the model and give more details so that it can be effectively used in research and interventions. The revised model defines economic solvency as a woman's human capital, social capital, sustainable employment, independence, and assets. These factors are affected by opportunities and threats in her relationships, community, and society.

Developing and Validating the Scale of Economic Self-Efficacy.

Experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) and financial hardship are often intertwined. The dynamics of an abusive relationship may include economic abuse tactics that compromise a survivor's ability to work, pursue education, have access to financial resources, and establish financial skills, knowledge, and security. An increasingly common goal among programs serving IPV survivors is increasing financial empowerment through financial literacy. However, providing financial education alone may not be enough to improve financial behaviors. Psychological factors also play a role when individuals make financial choices. Economic self-efficacy focuses on the individual's perceived ability to perform economic or financial tasks, and may be considered a primary influence on one's ability to improve financial decisions and behaviors. The current study tests the reliability and validity of a Scale of Economic Self-Efficacy with a sample of female survivors of IPV. This study uses a calibration and validation analysis model including full and split-sample exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, assesses for internal consistency, and examines correlation coefficients between economic self-efficacy, economic self-sufficiency, financial strain, and difficulty living with income. Findings indicate that the 10-item, unidimensional Scale of Economic Self-Efficacy demonstrates strong reliability and validity among this sample of IPV survivors. An ability to understand economic self-efficacy could facilitate individualized service approaches and allow practitioners to better support IPV survivors on their journey toward financial empowerment. Given the increase in programs focused on assets, financial empowerment, and economic well-being, the Scale of Economic Self-Efficacy has potential as a very timely and relevant tool in the design, implementation, and evaluation of such programs, and specifically for programs created for IPV survivors.

Multiple Losses: The Psychological and Economic Well-Being of Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence.

This study advanced knowledge regarding the mechanisms through which intimate partner violence relates to psychological and financial distress with a sample of diverse low-income women. Data were collected from 147 female domestic violence survivors who were abused by a male partner within the past 6 months. Three hierarchical regression analyses revealed that psychological, physical, and economic abuse were predictive of posttraumatic stress, depression, and economic self-sufficiency among survivors. Guided by the Conservation of Resources Theory, the loss of financial, work, and interpersonal resources also predicted these three outcomes, above and beyond abuse experiences (i.e., economically controlling behaviors, economic sabotage, and interpersonal resource loss were unique predictors). In addition, bootstrap mediation analyses showed that interpersonal resource loss partially mediated the relationship between psychological abuse and mental health outcomes. Together, these findings can be used to inform future interventions to promote the financial and psychological well-being of survivors.

Financial inclusion and intimate partner violence: What does the evidence suggest?

Financial inclusion is an area of growing global interest in women's empowerment policy and programming. While increased economic autonomy may be expected to reduce the prevalence of intimate partner violence, the mechanisms and contexts through which this relationship manifests are not well understood. This analysis aims to assess the relationship between women's financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence using nationally-representative data from 112 countries worldwide. Levels of both financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence varied substantially across countries (ranging from 2-100%, and 1-46%, respectively), and across regions. In multivariate global analyses, increased levels of women's financial inclusion were associated with lower levels of recent intimate partner violence after accounting for asset-based enablers of economic autonomy and gender norms; this relationship was lost upon the inclusion of measures of national context (i.e., development and fragility). These results underscore that the relationship between financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence is complex, follows many pathways, and is affected by context. In low and middle income countries, asset-based enablers of economic autonomy, gender norms and national context explained much of the relationship between financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence. In those low and middle income countries with high levels of controlling behavior by male spouses, financial inclusion was associated with higher levels of recent intimate partner violence. These findings further suggest that initiatives that aim to prevent intimate partner violence by way of increased economic autonomy may be ineffective in the absence of broader social change and support, and indeed, as seen in countries with higher levels of men's controlling behavior, backlash may increase the risk of violence. Efforts to improve women's financial inclusion need to recognize that its relationship with intimate partner violence is complex, and that it requires an enabling environment supportive of women's rights and autonomy.

Women economic empowerment via cash transfer and microcredit programs is enough to decrease intimate partner violence? Evidence from a systematic review.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a worldwide public health problem. Many proposals aiming to eliminate its occurrence include the empowerment of women through their socio-economic development. In this context, some studies suggested that microcredit programs (MP) and cash transfer programs (CTP) are initiatives that can also reduce the risk of IPV. Others pointed to an opposite effect. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of women's economic empowerment in MP and CTP on the risk of physical, psychological and sexual violence through a systematic review. Papers/documents selection was conducted by two researchers according to the following criteria: published in English, Portuguese or Spanish; primary data; assessing the effect of MP or CTP on IPV; in heterosexual couples; on women beneficiaries of the intervention; using a comparator group eligible for an MP or CTP; and focusing on risk IPV as the outcomes. Our results showed that the impact of MP are mixed when it comes to physical and physical/sexual violence. Even so, the review suggests that the effect of MP on sexual violence is trivial or nonexistent. Regarding the impact of CTPs, the present study showed that the effects on physical, physical/sexual, psychological, and sexual violence were also heterogeneous. Women more empowered and with some autonomy could be at risk. Despite that, participation in the empowerment program should be encouraged for poor women and families. However, parallel interventions to lead with IPV should be addressed to the main actions to reduce the risk of increasing IPV prevalence in certain scenarios.

Exploring young women's constructions of love and strategies to navigate violent relationships in South African informal settlements.

This paper explores young women's experiences and constructions of love-relationships and intimate partner violence in South Africa, and the role of agency in women's decisions to remain in or leave violent love-relationships. Understanding why young women stay in or leave violent love-relationships is key to developing nuanced understandings of agency and informing intimate partner violence prevention interventions. Data were collected from 15 young women in informal settlements in eThekwini Municipality, South Africa, via in-depth interviews, photovoice and participant observation, and were analysed inductively. While women's love-relationships were frequently violent, they often stayed in them for long periods, usually because the relationships met other important aspirations, including the desire for respect and dignity. Nonetheless, many women left when they no longer felt loved and respected, which they believed was shown by men's behaviours, specifically: indiscreet affairs; not spending time together; not spending money on her and any child(ren); and public (and humiliating) violence. Emotional and economic support from families also influenced women's decisions about leaving or staying. These data demonstrate that agency goes beyond definitive acts of leaving violent relationships; rather it is fluid, contested and contextual, with many factors influencing young women's goals and actions.

Microfinance Participation, Control Over Resources, and Justification of IPV: Results From a Nationally Representative Sample of Women.

A high percentage of men and women are purported to justify intimate partner violence (IPV) in countries that are steeped in patriarchy even in the presence of programs such as microfinance that aim to address gender equity. This article examines two assertions that emerge from the literature on microfinance and its potential for positive outcomes for women who participate in it: (a) Microfinance participation is associated with reduced justification of IPV, and (b) microfinance participants with control over their own resources are less likely to justify IPV when compared with microfinance participants who do not have control over their resources. Couples data from a nationally representative survey, the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey, were used in the present study. Propensity score matching and logistic regression analyses were conducted to reveal that (a) microfinance participation was not associated with justification of IPV and that (b) women who participated in microfinance were less likely to justify IPV when they had no control over their resources. Implications for practitioners and policymakers are discussed.

Flexible Funding as a Promising Strategy to Prevent Homelessness for Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence.

The complex interrelationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and housing instability has been well established. Being the victim of IPV is a leading cause of homelessness for women, and once someone is homeless, their lives often spiral downward quickly. While some IPV survivors require extensive and possibly long-term assistance to achieve safe and stable housing (especially if they are contending with multiple complex issues), others could avoid homelessness if provided with immediate, individualized, and flexible assistance. For these survivors, whose housing has been otherwise stable but who face homelessness because of a crisis related to IPV, a brief intervention that includes flexible funding can restore a family's equilibrium and prevent the devastating repercussions associated with homelessness. A longitudinal evaluation of a flexible funding program in Washington, D.C., found that this brief, relatively inexpensive intervention may increase housing stability-94% of clients were housed 6 months after funding was received. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.