Loss and recovery of ecological diversity associated with evolutionary rescue in abruptly and gradually deteriorating environments.

Populations may survive environmental deterioration by evolutionary adaptation. However, such evolutionary rescue events may be associated with ecological costs, such as reduction in growth performance and loss of ecologically important genetic diversity. Those negative ecological consequences may be mitigated by additional adaptive evolution. Both the ecological costs and the opportunities for additional evolution are contingent on the severity of environmental deterioration. Here, we hypothesize that populations evolutionarily rescued from faster, relative to slow, environmental deterioration suffer more severe long-term fitness decline and diversity loss. An experiment with the model adaptive radiation of bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens exposed to abruptly or gradually increased antibiotic stress supported our hypothesis. The effect of additional adaptive evolution in recovering population size and ecological diversity was far from perfect. Cautions are therefore needed in predicting the role of rapid evolution for mitigating the impacts of environmental changes, in particular very fast environmental deterioration. We also found that bacterial populations rescued from gradually increased antibiotic stress evolved higher levels of antibiotic resistance, lending more support to aggressive chemotherapy in pathogen control.