Loss of the transforming growth factor-ß effector ß2-Spectrin promotes genomic instability.

Exposure to genotoxins such as ethanol-derived acetaldehyde leads to DNA damage and liver injury and promotes the development of cancer. We report here a major role for the transforming growth factor ß/mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 adaptor ß2-Spectrin (ß2SP, gene Sptbn1) in maintaining genomic stability following alcohol-induced DNA damage. ß2SP supports DNA repair through ß2SP-dependent activation of Fanconi anemia complementation group D2 (Fancd2), a core component of the Fanconi anemia complex. Loss of ß2SP leads to decreased Fancd2 levels and sensitizes ß2SP mutants to DNA damage by ethanol treatment, leading to phenotypes that closely resemble those observed in animals lacking both aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 and Fancd2 and resemble human fetal alcohol syndrome. Sptbn1-deficient cells are hypersensitive to DNA crosslinking agents and have defective DNA double-strand break repair that is rescued by ectopic Fancd2 expression. Moreover, Fancd2 transcription in response to DNA damage/transforming growth factor ß stimulation is regulated by the ß2SP/mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 complex. CONCLUSION: Dysfunctional transforming growth factor ß/ß2SP signaling impacts the processing of genotoxic metabolites by altering the Fanconi anemia DNA repair pathway. (Hepatology 2017;65:678-693).

Barrett's Esophagus after Bimodality Therapy in Patients with Esophageal Adenocarcinoma.

INTRODUCTION: Barrett's esophagus (BE) may be present in patients with esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) after bimodality therapy (BMT). There is no specific guidance for follow-up of these patients with regard to the presence of BE or dysplasia. In this study, we assessed the outcomes of patients who, after BMT, had BE and those who did not. METHOD: Patients with EAC who had BMT were identified and analyzed retrospectively in two groups, with and without BE. We compared patient characteristics and outcome variables (local, distant, and no recurrence). RESULTS: Of 228 patients with EAC, 68 (29.8%) had BE before BMT. Ninety-eight (42.9%) had BE after BMT, and endoscopic intervention was done in 11 (11.2%). With a median follow-up of 37 months, the presence of post-BMT BE was not significantly associated with overall survival (OS) and local recurrence-free survival (LRFS). Similarly, endoscopic intervention was not significantly associated with OS and LRFS. Fifty (73.5%) patients with BE before BMT had BE after BMT (p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The presence of BE after BMT was not associated with increased risk of local recurrence. The local recurrence rate was not influenced by endoscopic intervention. Prospective studies are warranted to generate guidance for intervention, if necessary, for this group of EAC patients.

Outcome of EMR as an alternative to surgery in patients with complex colon polyps.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Patients with complex colon polyps were traditionally referred for surgery to avoid adverse events associated with endoscopic resection. Recent advances in endoscopic imaging as well as endoscopic hemostasis and clip closure allow for the use of EMR as an alternative to surgery for such lesions. To determine the outcome of treatment of complex colon polyps with EMR as an alternative to surgery, we conducted a retrospective observational study. METHODS: Two hundred three patients with complex colon polyps were referred to an EMR center as an alternative to surgery. Patients underwent a protocol-driven EMR. The primary endpoint was the complete resection rate. Secondary endpoints were safety, residual adenoma rate, and incidence of missed synchronous polyps. RESULTS: EMR was performed in 155 patients and was deferred in 48 patients who were referred to surgery. EMR specimens revealed benign polyps in 149 and cancer in 6 patients. EMR adverse events occurred in 7 patients, requiring hospitalization in 5 of them. None of the patients died as a result of their adverse events. Surveillance colonoscopy at 4 to 6 months after resection of a benign lesion in 137 patients revealed residual adenoma at the scar site in 6 patients and additional synchronous precancerous lesions in 117 patients that were not removed by the referring endoscopist. None underwent surgery for failure of EMR. The overall precancerous lesion burden was 2.83 per patient, the adenoma burden was 2.13 per patient, and the serrated polyp burden was .69 per patient. CONCLUSIONS: EMR can be used instead of surgery for complex colon polyps in 75% of patients with few adverse events and few residual adenomas at resection sites. In addition, careful repeat examination of the entire colon for synchronous lesions overlooked by the referring endoscopist is required for most patients. ( CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01827241.).

Natural language processing as an alternative to manual reporting of colonoscopy quality metrics.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The adenoma detection rate (ADR) is a quality metric tied to interval colon cancer occurrence. However, manual extraction of data to calculate and track the ADR in clinical practice is labor-intensive. To overcome this difficulty, we developed a natural language processing (NLP) method to identify adenomas and sessile serrated adenomas (SSAs) in patients undergoing their first screening colonoscopy. We compared the NLP-generated results with that of manual data extraction to test the accuracy of NLP and report on colonoscopy quality metrics using NLP. METHODS: Identification of screening colonoscopies using NLP was compared with that using the manual method for 12,748 patients who underwent colonoscopies from July 2010 to February 2013. Also, identification of adenomas and SSAs using NLP was compared with that using the manual method with 2259 matched patient records. Colonoscopy ADRs using these methods were generated for each physician. RESULTS: NLP correctly identified 91.3% of the screening examinations, whereas the manual method identified 87.8% of them. Both the manual method and NLP correctly identified examinations of patients with adenomas and SSAs in the matched records almost perfectly. Both NLP and the manual method produced comparable values for ADRs for each endoscopist and for the group as a whole. CONCLUSIONS: NLP can correctly identify screening colonoscopies, accurately identify adenomas and SSAs in a pathology database, and provide real-time quality metrics for colonoscopy.

Comparison of the utility of covered metal stents versus uncovered metal stents in the management of malignant biliary strictures in 749 patients.

BACKGROUND: Self-expandable metal stents (SEMSs) are used to relieve malignant biliary obstruction. OBJECTIVE: To compare outcomes between covered self-expandable metal stents (CSEMSs) and uncovered self-expandable metal stents (USEMSs) in malignant biliary obstruction. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Tertiary cancer center. PATIENTS: Patients with malignant biliary obstruction. INTERVENTIONS: Placement of CSEMS or USEMS. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Time to recurrent biliary obstruction (TRO), overall survival (OS), and adverse events. RESULTS: From January 2000 to June 2011, 749 patients received SEMSs: 171 CSEMSs and 578 USEMSs. At 1 year, there was no significant difference in the percentage of patients with recurrent obstruction (CSEMSs, 35% vs USEMSs, 38%) and survival (CSEMSs, 45% vs USEMSs, 49%). There was no significant difference in the median OS (CSEMSs, 10.4 months vs USEMSs, 11.8 months; P = .84) and the median TRO (CSEMSs, 15.4 months vs USEMSs, 26.3 months; P = .61). The adverse event rate was 27.5% for the CSEMS group and 27.7% for the USEMS group. Although tumor ingrowth with recurrent obstruction was more common in the USEMS group (76% vs 9%, P < .001), stent migration (36% vs 2%, P < .001) and acute pancreatitis (6% vs 1%, P < .001) were more common in the CSEMS group. LIMITATIONS: Retrospective study. CONCLUSIONS: There was no significant difference in the patency rate or overall survival between CSEMSs and USEMSs for malignant distal biliary strictures. The CSEMS group had a significantly higher rate of migration and pancreatitis than the USEMS group. No significant SEMS-related adverse events were observed in patients undergoing neoadjuvant chemoradiation or surgical resection.

Acute exacerbation and reactivation of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in cancer patients.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Data on acute exacerbation and reactivation of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection following chemotherapy are very limited. We sought to characterize the episodes of acute exacerbation and viral reactivation of HCV infection in cancer patients. METHODS: The medical records of HCV-infected patients seen at our institution (2008-2009) were analyzed retrospectively. Acute exacerbation was defined as greater than 3-fold increase in serum level of alanine aminotransferase, and viral reactivation as ≥ 1 log(10) IU/ml increase of HCV viral load following chemotherapy. RESULTS: Acute exacerbation occurred in 33 (11%) of 308 patients with proven HCV infection. Patients with acute exacerbation more often had underlying hematological malignancies (73% vs. 29%; p<0.001) and lymphopenia (6% vs. 0%; p=0.01) than patients without it. In multivariate analysis, underlying hematological malignancies (p=0.02; odds ratio, 3.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-8.7) and use of rituximab (p=0.004; odds ratio, 4.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.6-10.9) were associated with acute exacerbation. Patients with acute exacerbation received higher median cumulative dose of rituximab than those without exacerbation. Discontinuation of chemotherapy due to liver dysfunction was more common in patients with acute exacerbation than in patients without it (45% vs. 11%; p<0.001). Eight (36%) of 22 patients with known pre- and post-chemotherapy viral load had viral reactivation. CONCLUSIONS: Acute exacerbation and reactivation of chronic HCV infection occur often after chemotherapy. Liver dysfunction can lead to discontinuation of potentially life-saving chemotherapy in nearly one-half of the patients with exacerbation of HCV infection.

Dysfunctional transforming growth factor-ß signaling with constitutively active Notch signaling in Barrett's esophageal adenocarcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Esophageal adenocarcinoma is often considered to arise from a clonal stem-like population of cells, which is potentially responsible for its poor prognosis. Transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß) and Notch signaling pathways play important roles in regulating self-renewal of stem cells and cell-fate determination. Both pathways are frequently implicated in gastrointestinal carcinogenesis. However, their contributions to esophageal adenocarcinoma remain unclear. METHODS: We evaluated TGF-ß and Notch signaling components in normal esophagus, Barrett's esophagus, and adenocarcinoma tissues and cell lines via immunohistochemical analysis and immunoblotting; Hes-1 transcription was assayed using a Hes-1 luciferase reporter. RESULTS: We observed loss of Smad4 (P<.05) and ß2 spectrin (ß2SP) (P<.01) in 5/10 Barrett's esophagus and 17/22 adenocarcinoma tissue sections. Concomitantly, dramatically raised levels of Notch signaling components Hes1 and Jagged1 occurred in adenocarcinoma tissues and cell lines compared with normal tissues. In normal esophagus, Oct3/4-positive cells are located in the basal layer (2-3 per cluster), representing a pool of progenitor cells. We observed an expansion of this pool of Oct3/4 positive cells in esophageal adenocarcinoma (15 per cluster). Furthermore, a panel of SOXs proteins documented for stem cell markers exhibit increased expression in tumor cells, indicating expansion of putative cancer stem cells. Finally, we observed growth inhibition in BE3 cells with a γ-secretase inhibitor, but not in SKGT-4 cells. Unlike SKGT-4 cells, BE3 cells have activated Notch signaling with disruption of TGF-ß signaling. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrated a potential therapeutic value for targeted therapy in esophageal adenocarcinoma in the setting of loss of ß2SP/TGF-ß with concomitant constitutively active Notch signaling.

Update: modern approaches to the treatment of localized esophageal cancer.

The optimal treatment strategy for esophageal cancer continues to be a topic of debate. Improvements in chemotherapy drugs, surgical techniques, and radiotherapy planning and delivery have led to the design of treatment approaches that are specific to both the stage of the tumor and the overall performance status of the patient. Surgery continues to be the standard treatment option for localized disease, but multimodality treatments that include radiation and chemotherapy with surgery are increasingly used. The next few years will continue to see improvements in radiation techniques, especially proton beam treatment; the development of additional minimally invasive surgical approaches to minimize postoperative side effects; and the discovery of molecular biomarkers to help specifically target treatment of esophageal cancer in individual patients.

Optimum palliation of inoperable hilar cholangiocarcinoma: comparative assessment of the efficacy of plastic and self-expanding metal stents.

BACKGROUND: Endoscopic retrograde biliary drainage (ERBD) with plastic or self-expanding metal stents (SEMS) is often performed for palliative care for cholangiocarcinoma. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to compare the clinical effectiveness, including stent patency, complication rate, and need for salvage percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage, of SEMS and plastic stents. METHODS: A total of 100 patients with inoperable cholangiocarcinoma were identified from an endoscopic database from 1/1/01 to 9/30/06 at a tertiary cancer hospital and their clinical history was retrospectively reviewed. All patients were followed to death, re-intervention, or for at least one year. Stent patency and patient survival were estimated by Kaplan-Meier analysis, supplemented by the log-rank test for comparisons between groups. RESULTS: Forty-eight patients had SEMS placed and 52 patients had plastic stents placed. ERBD was successful in 46 (95.8%) in the SEMS group and 49 (94.2%) in the plastic group (P = 0.67). Median patency times were 1.86 months in the plastic group and 5.56 months in the SEMS group (P < 0.0001). A mean of 1.53 and 4.60 re-interventions were performed in the SEMS and plastic groups, respectively (P < 0.05). Complications occurred in 4/48 (8.3%) in the SEMS group and 4/52 (7.7%) in the plastic group (P = 0.79). Median survival was 9.08 and 8.22 months in the SEMS and plastic stent groups, respectively (P = 0.50). CONCLUSION: Metallic stent patency was superior to that of plastic stents in all Bismuth-Corlette classifications of hilar cholangiocarcinoma with similar complication rates. SEMS seem to be cost-effective and, when feasible, should be considered as an initial intervention in patients with inoperable hilar cholangiocarcinoma.

Hair cortisol levels in pregnancy as a possible determinant of fetal sex: a longitudinal study.

Stress during pregnancy has been widely studied and associated to different variables, usually with negative results for the health of the mother and the newborn, such as having a higher risk of suffering postpartum depression, premature birth, obstetrics complications or low birthweight, among others. However, there are not many lines of research that study the role that the sex of the baby plays on this specific stress and vice versa. Thus, the main objective was to analyse the relationship between the sex of the offspring and the stress of the mothers in the first trimester of pregnancy. In order to achieve this, 108 women had their biological stress measured (trough hair cortisol levels) and psychological stress evaluated (the Prenatal Distress Questionnaire (PSS), the Perceived Stress Scale (PDQ) and the Stress Vulnerability Inventory (IVE)). The results revealed significant differences in maternal hair cortisol levels in the first trimester based on the sex of the baby they had given birth to (t = -2.04; P < 0.05): the concentration of the hormone was higher if the baby was a girl (164.36:54.45-284.87 pg/mg) than if it was a boy (101.13:37.95-193.56 pg/mg). These findings show that the sex of the future baby could be conditioned, among many other variables, by the mother´s stress levels during conception and first weeks of pregnancy. Further research is needed in this area to support our findings.

Association between hypothyroidism and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in the United States.

Thyroid hormones play an essential role in lipid mobilization, lipid degradation, and fatty acid oxidation. Hypothyroidism has been associated with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis; however, the association between thyroid diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in men and women has not been well established. We investigated the association between hypothyroidism and HCC risk in men and women in a case-control study, which included 420 eligible patients with HCC and 1104 healthy controls. We used multivariate unconditional logistic regression models to control for the confounding effects of established HCC risk factors. A long-term history of hypothyroidism (>10 years) was associated with a statistically significant high risk of HCC in women; after adjusting for demographic factors, diabetes, hepatitis, alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and family history of cancer, the odds ratio (OR) was 2.9 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-6.3). Restricted analyses among hepatitis virus-negative subjects, nondrinkers, nondiabetics, nonsmokers, and nonobese individuals indicated a significant association between hypothyroidism and HCC, with an approximate two-fold to three-fold increased risk of HCC development. We observed risk modification among women with diabetes mellitus (OR = 9.4; 95% CI = 2.7-32.7) and chronic hepatitis virus infection (OR = 31.2; 95% CI = 6.3-153.2). A history of hyperthyroidism was not significantly related to HCC (OR = 1.7; CI = 0.6-5.1). We noted significant elevated risk association between hypothyroidism and HCC in women that was independent of established HCC risk factors. Experimental investigations are necessary for thorough assessment of the relationship between thyroid disorders and HCC.

Self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) can serve as a bridge to surgery or as a definitive therapy in patients with an advanced stage of cancer: clinical experience of a tertiary cancer center.

BACKGROUND: Self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) can be used to relieve benign and malignant colorectal obstruction. AIMS: The aim of this study was to determine the outcomes of SEMS for malignant colorectal obstruction. METHODS: Retrospective review was done of patients who underwent endoscopic SEMS placement from 2001 to 2007. RESULTS: Forty-six patients (23 M), mean age 60 years (range 24-82) underwent endoscopic SEMS placement. Cancer types included: 28 colorectal, and 18 metastatic cancers. The locations of the obstruction were as follows: two in the ascending colon, one in the hepatic flexure, three in the transverse colon, two in the splenic flexure, two in the descending colon, 26 in the sigmoid colon, and ten in the rectum. In 39 of the 46 cases (84.8%), placement of a single SEMS was successful covering the entire strictures, but in seven cases, two of the stents were placed in tandem resulting in adequate overage of stricture. Technical success was achieved in all cases. Clinical success was achieved in 39 out of 46 cases (84.8%). Two perforations were detected immediately and day 5 after SEMS placement, resulting in one death and one emergent surgery. Mean follow-up was 126 days (range 2-1,210). Twenty-eight of the 46 patients (61%) died during the follow-up period with the median overall survival being 3.52 months (95% CI: 2.34-4.41 months). CONCLUSIONS: Placement of SEMS for the treatment of colorectal obstruction is feasible and safe. In our institution, where SEMS are primarily used to palliate terminal disease, technical and clinical success rates were high without significant morbidity and mortality. On long-term follow-up, patients died from their advanced disease with infrequent recurrent obstruction or stent-related complications.

Cap-fitted endoscopic mucosal resection of ≥ 20 mm colon flat lesions followed by argon plasma coagulation results in a low adenoma recurrence rate.

Background and study aims Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) is increasingly used for the treatment of large colonic polyps (≥ 20 mm). A drawback of EMR is local adenoma recurrence. Therefore, we studied the impact of argon plasma coagulation (APC) of the EMR edge on local adenoma recurrence. Patients and methods This was a retrospective study of patients with laterally spreading tumors (LST) ≥ 20 mm, who underwent EMR from January 2009 to August 2018 and follow-up endoscopic assessment. A cap-fitted endoscope was used to assess completeness of resection by systematically inspecting the EMR defect for any macroscopic disease. This was followed by forced APC of the resection edge followed by clip closure of the defect. Surveillance colonoscopy was performed at 6 months after resection to detect recurrence. Results Two hundred forty-six patients met the inclusion criteria. Most were female (53 %) and white (80 %), with a Median age of 64 years. Median polyp size was 35 mm (interquartile range, 30-45 mm). Most polyps were located in the right colon (77 %) and were removed by piecemeal EMR (70 %). Eleven patients (5 %) had residual tumor at the resection site. Conclusions We observed low adenoma recurrence after argon plasma coagulation of the EMR edge with a cap fitted colonoscope in patients with LST ≥ 20 mm of the colon, which requires further validation in a randomized controlled study.

Use of the Plasma Spectrum RMS Signal for Arc-Welding Diagnostics.

A new spectroscopic parameter is used in this paper for on-line arc-welding quality monitoring. Plasma spectroscopy applied to welding diagnostics has typically relied on the estimation of the plasma electronic temperature, as there is a known correlation between this parameter and the quality of the seams. However, the practical use of this parameter gives rise to some uncertainties that could provoke ambiguous results. For an efficient on-line welding monitoring system, it is essential to prevent the appearance of false alarms, as well as to detect all the possible defects. In this regard, we propose the use of the root mean square signal of the welding plasma spectra, as this parameter will be proven to exhibit a good correlation with the quality of the resulting seams. Results corresponding to several arc-welding field tests performed on Inconel and titanium specimens will be discussed and compared to non-destructive evaluation techniques.

Quality of endoscopy reporting at index colonoscopy significantly impacts outcome of subsequent EMR in patients with > 20 mm colon polyps.

Background and study aims Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) is safe and cost-effective in management of patients with colon polyps. However, very little is known about the actions of the referring endoscopist following identification of these lesions at index colonoscopy, and the impact of those actions on the outcome of subsequent referral for EMR. The aim of this study was to identify practices at index colonoscopy that lead to failure of subsequent EMR. Patients and methods Two hundred and eighty-nine consecutive patients with biopsy-proven non-malignant colon polyps (> 20 mm) referred for EMR were analyzed to identify practices that could be improved from the time of identifying the lesion at index colonoscopy until completion of therapy. Results EMR was abandoned at colonoscopy at the EMR center in 71 of 289 patients (24.6 %). Reasons for abandoning EMR included diagnosis of invasive carcinoma (n = 9; 12.7 %), tethered lesions (n = 21; 29.6 %) from prior endoscopic interventions, and overly large (n = 22; 31 %) and inaccessible lesions (n = 17; 24 %) for complete and safe resection whose details were not recorded in the referring endoscopy report, or polyposis syndromes (n = 2; 2.8 %) that were not recognized. Conclusions In our practice, one in four EMR attempts were abandoned as a result of inadequate diagnosis or management by the referring endoscopist, which could be improved by education on optical diagnosis of polyps, comprehensive documentation of the procedure and avoidance of interventions that preclude resection.

Outcomes after endoscopic mucosal resection or esophagectomy for submucosal esophageal adenocarcinoma.

OBJECTIVES: Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) is a diagnostic and potentially therapeutic option for patients with submucosal esophageal adenocarcinoma. However, there are significant concerns regarding the risk of lymph node metastasis. Our purpose was to construct a comparative effectiveness analysis comparing recurrence patterns after therapeutic EMR or esophagectomy. METHODS: Patients who underwent therapeutic EMR or esophagectomy from 2007 to 2015 with pathologically staged submucosal adenocarcinoma were identified from a departmental database. Cancer-related outcomes were compared among an unmatched as well as a propensity matched cohort. Risk stratification was also used to compare results among those with a low, medium, or high risk of nodal metastasis. RESULTS: Seventy-two patients met criteria for analysis, among whom 23 underwent therapeutic EMR with esophageal preservation and 49 underwent esophagectomy. Median follow-up was 43 months. Patients who underwent esophagectomy had larger, deeper tumors. Esophageal preservation was associated with an increased risk of local recurrence (P = .01), but not distant recurrence (P = .44). After propensity matching, there continued to be no difference in distant recurrence rate (P = .66). In a risk-stratified analysis, low-risk patients showed no recurrences or cancer-related deaths, however, high-risk patients showed a trend toward increased distant recurrence after therapeutic EMR. CONCLUSIONS: Esophageal preservation after therapeutic EMR was associated with an increased risk of local recurrence. Among low-risk patients, either strategy resulted in excellent cancer control. However, among high-risk patients, esophageal preservation showed a trend toward increased distant failure. These findings should prompt further investigation to determine optimal treatment for patients with submucosal esophageal adenocarcinoma.

TGF-ß/ß2-spectrin/CTCF-regulated tumor suppression in human stem cell disorder Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.

Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) is a human stem cell disorder, and individuals with this disease have a substantially increased risk (~800-fold) of developing tumors. Epigenetic silencing of ß2-spectrin (ß2SP, encoded by SPTBN1), a SMAD adaptor for TGF-ß signaling, is causally associated with BWS; however, a role of TGF-ß deficiency in BWS-associated neoplastic transformation is unexplored. Here, we have reported that double-heterozygous Sptbn1+/- Smad3+/- mice, which have defective TGF-ß signaling, develop multiple tumors that are phenotypically similar to those of BWS patients. Moreover, tumorigenesis-associated genes IGF2 and telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) were overexpressed in fibroblasts from BWS patients and TGF-ß-defective mice. We further determined that chromatin insulator CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) is TGF-ß inducible and facilitates TGF-ß-mediated repression of TERT transcription via interactions with ß2SP and SMAD3. This regulation was abrogated in TGF-ß-defective mice and BWS, resulting in TERT overexpression. Imprinting of the IGF2/H19 locus and the CDKN1C/KCNQ1 locus on chromosome 11p15.5 is mediated by CTCF, and this regulation is lost in BWS, leading to aberrant overexpression of growth-promoting genes. Therefore, we propose that loss of CTCF-dependent imprinting of tumor-promoting genes, such as IGF2 and TERT, results from a defective TGF-ß pathway and is responsible at least in part for BWS-associated tumorigenesis as well as sporadic human cancers that are frequently associated with SPTBN1 and SMAD3 mutations.