Synaptic and dendritic architecture of different types of hippocampal somatostatin interneurons.

GABAergic inhibitory neurons fundamentally shape the activity and plasticity of cortical circuits. A major subset of these neurons contains somatostatin (SOM); these cells play crucial roles in neuroplasticity, learning, and memory in many brain areas including the hippocampus, and are implicated in several neuropsychiatric diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. Two main types of SOM-containing cells in area CA1 of the hippocampus are oriens-lacunosum-moleculare (OLM) cells and hippocampo-septal (HS) cells. These cell types show many similarities in their soma-dendritic architecture, but they have different axonal targets, display different activity patterns in vivo, and are thought to have distinct network functions. However, a complete understanding of the functional roles of these interneurons requires a precise description of their intrinsic computational properties and their synaptic interactions. In the current study we generated, analyzed, and make available several key data sets that enable a quantitative comparison of various anatomical and physiological properties of OLM and HS cells in mouse. The data set includes detailed scanning electron microscopy (SEM)-based 3D reconstructions of OLM and HS cells along with their excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs. Combining this core data set with other anatomical data, patch-clamp electrophysiology, and compartmental modeling, we examined the precise morphological structure, inputs, outputs, and basic physiological properties of these cells. Our results highlight key differences between OLM and HS cells, particularly regarding the density and distribution of their synaptic inputs and mitochondria. For example, we estimated that an OLM cell receives about 8,400, whereas an HS cell about 15,600 synaptic inputs, about 16% of which are GABAergic. Our data and models provide insight into the possible basis of the different functionality of OLM and HS cell types and supply essential information for more detailed functional models of these neurons and the hippocampal network.

HippoUnit: A software tool for the automated testing and systematic comparison of detailed models of hippocampal neurons based on electrophysiological data.

Anatomically and biophysically detailed data-driven neuronal models have become widely used tools for understanding and predicting the behavior and function of neurons. Due to the increasing availability of experimental data from anatomical and electrophysiological measurements as well as the growing number of computational and software tools that enable accurate neuronal modeling, there are now a large number of different models of many cell types available in the literature. These models were usually built to capture a few important or interesting properties of the given neuron type, and it is often unknown how they would behave outside their original context. In addition, there is currently no simple way of quantitatively comparing different models regarding how closely they match specific experimental observations. This limits the evaluation, re-use and further development of the existing models. Further, the development of new models could also be significantly facilitated by the ability to rapidly test the behavior of model candidates against the relevant collection of experimental data. We address these problems for the representative case of the CA1 pyramidal cell of the rat hippocampus by developing an open-source Python test suite, which makes it possible to automatically and systematically test multiple properties of models by making quantitative comparisons between the models and electrophysiological data. The tests cover various aspects of somatic behavior, and signal propagation and integration in apical dendrites. To demonstrate the utility of our approach, we applied our tests to compare the behavior of several different rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cell models from the ModelDB database against electrophysiological data available in the literature, and evaluated how well these models match experimental observations in different domains. We also show how we employed the test suite to aid the development of models within the European Human Brain Project (HBP), and describe the integration of the tests into the validation framework developed in the HBP, with the aim of facilitating more reproducible and transparent model building in the neuroscience community.

Multiple functions of endocannabinoid signaling in the brain.

Despite being regarded as a hippie science for decades, cannabinoid research has finally found its well-deserved position in mainstream neuroscience. A series of groundbreaking discoveries revealed that endocannabinoid molecules are as widespread and important as conventional neurotransmitters such as glutamate or GABA, yet they act in profoundly unconventional ways. We aim to illustrate how uncovering the molecular, anatomical, and physiological characteristics of endocannabinoid signaling has revealed new mechanistic insights into several fundamental phenomena in synaptic physiology. First, we summarize unexpected advances in the molecular complexity of biogenesis and inactivation of the two endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol. Then, we show how these new metabolic routes are integrated into well-known intracellular signaling pathways. These endocannabinoid-producing signalosomes operate in phasic and tonic modes, thereby differentially governing homeostatic, short-term, and long-term synaptic plasticity throughout the brain. Finally, we discuss how cell type- and synapse-specific refinement of endocannabinoid signaling may explain the characteristic behavioral effects of cannabinoids.

The physiological variability of channel density in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells and interneurons explored using a unified data-driven modeling workflow.

Every neuron is part of a network, exerting its function by transforming multiple spatiotemporal synaptic input patterns into a single spiking output. This function is specified by the particular shape and passive electrical properties of the neuronal membrane, and the composition and spatial distribution of ion channels across its processes. For a variety of physiological or pathological reasons, the intrinsic input/output function may change during a neuron's lifetime. This process results in high variability in the peak specific conductance of ion channels in individual neurons. The mechanisms responsible for this variability are not well understood, although there are clear indications from experiments and modeling that degeneracy and correlation among multiple channels may be involved. Here, we studied this issue in biophysical models of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons and interneurons. Using a unified data-driven simulation workflow and starting from a set of experimental recordings and morphological reconstructions obtained from rats, we built and analyzed several ensembles of morphologically and biophysically accurate single cell models with intrinsic electrophysiological properties consistent with experimental findings. The results suggest that the set of conductances expressed in any given hippocampal neuron may be considered as belonging to two groups: one subset is responsible for the major characteristics of the firing behavior in each population and the other is responsible for a robust degeneracy. Analysis of the model neurons suggests several experimentally testable predictions related to the combination and relative proportion of the different conductances that should be expressed on the membrane of different types of neurons for them to fulfill their role in the hippocampus circuitry.

New insights into the classification and nomenclature of cortical GABAergic interneurons.

A systematic classification and accepted nomenclature of neuron types is much needed but is currently lacking. This article describes a possible taxonomical solution for classifying GABAergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex based on a novel, web-based interactive system that allows experts to classify neurons with pre-determined criteria. Using Bayesian analysis and clustering algorithms on the resulting data, we investigated the suitability of several anatomical terms and neuron names for cortical GABAergic interneurons. Moreover, we show that supervised classification models could automatically categorize interneurons in agreement with experts' assignments. These results demonstrate a practical and objective approach to the naming, characterization and classification of neurons based on community consensus.

Optogenetic activation of septal cholinergic neurons suppresses sharp wave ripples and enhances theta oscillations in the hippocampus.

Theta oscillations in the limbic system depend on the integrity of the medial septum. The different populations of medial septal neurons (cholinergic and GABAergic) are assumed to affect different aspects of theta oscillations. Using optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic neurons in ChAT-Cre mice, we investigated their effects on hippocampal local field potentials in both anesthetized and behaving mice. Cholinergic stimulation completely blocked sharp wave ripples and strongly suppressed the power of both slow oscillations (0.5-2 Hz in anesthetized, 0.5-4 Hz in behaving animals) and supratheta (6-10 Hz in anesthetized, 10-25 Hz in behaving animals) bands. The same stimulation robustly increased both the power and coherence of theta oscillations (2-6 Hz) in urethane-anesthetized mice. In behaving mice, cholinergic stimulation was less effective in the theta (4-10 Hz) band yet it also increased the ratio of theta/slow oscillation and theta coherence. The effects on gamma oscillations largely mirrored those of theta. These findings show that medial septal cholinergic activation can both enhance theta rhythm and suppress peri-theta frequency bands, allowing theta oscillations to dominate.

Divergent in vivo activity of non-serotonergic and serotonergic VGluT3-neurones in the median raphe region.

KEY POINTS: The median raphe is a key subcortical modulatory centre involved in several brain functions, such as regulation of the sleep-wake cycle, emotions and memory storage. A large proportion of median raphe neurones are glutamatergic and implement a radically different mode of communication compared to serotonergic cells, although their in vivo activity is unknown. We provide the first description of the in vivo, brain state-dependent firing properties of median raphe glutamatergic neurones identified by immunopositivity for the vesicular glutamate transporter type 3 (VGluT3) and serotonin (5-HT). Glutamatergic populations (VGluT3+/5-HT- and VGluT3+/5-HT+) were compared with the purely serotonergic (VGluT3-/5-HT+ and VGluT3-/5-HT-) neurones. VGluT3+/5-HT+ neurones fired similar to VGluT3-/5-HT+ cells, whereas they significantly diverged from the VGluT3+/5-HT- population. Activity of the latter subgroup resembled the spiking of VGluT3-/5-HT- cells, except for their diverging response to sensory stimulation. The VGluT3+ population of the median raphe may broadcast rapidly varying signals on top of a state-dependent, tonic modulation. ABSTRACT: Subcortical modulation is crucial for information processing in the cerebral cortex. Besides the canonical neuromodulators, glutamate has recently been identified as a key cotransmitter of numerous monoaminergic projections. In the median raphe, a pure glutamatergic neurone population projecting to limbic areas was also discovered with a possibly novel, yet undetermined function. In the present study, we report the first functional description of the vesicular glutamate transporter type 3 (VGluT3)-expressing median raphe neurones. Because there is no appropriate genetic marker for the separation of serotonergic (5-HT+) and non-serotonergic (5-HT-) VGluT3+ neurones, we utilized immunohistochemistry after recording and juxtacellular labelling in anaesthetized rats. VGluT3+/5-HT- neurones fired faster, more variably and were permanently activated during sensory stimulation, as opposed to the transient response of the slow firing VGluT3-/5-HT+ subgroup. VGluT3+/5-HT- cells were also more active during hippocampal theta. In addition, the VGluT3-/5-HT- population, comprising putative GABAergic cells, resembled the firing of VGluT3+/5-HT- neurones but without any significant reaction to the sensory stimulus. Interestingly, the VGluT3+/5-HT+ group, spiking slower than the VGluT3+/5-HT- population, exhibited a mixed response (i.e. the initial transient activation was followed by a sustained elevation of firing). Phase coupling to hippocampal and prefrontal slow oscillations was found in VGluT3+/5-HT- neurones, also differentiating them from the VGluT3+/5-HT+ subpopulation. Taken together, glutamatergic neurones in the median raphe may implement multiple, highly divergent forms of modulation in parallel: a slow, tonic mode interrupted by sensory-evoked rapid transients, as well as a fast one capable of conveying complex patterns influenced by sensory inputs.

Mechanisms of sharp wave initiation and ripple generation.

Replay of neuronal activity during hippocampal sharp wave-ripples (SWRs) is essential in memory formation. To understand the mechanisms underlying the initiation of irregularly occurring SWRs and the generation of periodic ripples, we selectively manipulated different components of the CA3 network in mouse hippocampal slices. We recorded EPSCs and IPSCs to examine the buildup of neuronal activity preceding SWRs and analyzed the distribution of time intervals between subsequent SWR events. Our results suggest that SWRs are initiated through a combined refractory and stochastic mechanism. SWRs initiate when firing in a set of spontaneously active pyramidal cells triggers a gradual, exponential buildup of activity in the recurrent CA3 network. We showed that this tonic excitatory envelope drives reciprocally connected parvalbumin-positive basket cells, which start ripple-frequency spiking that is phase-locked through reciprocal inhibition. The synchronized GABA(A) receptor-mediated currents give rise to a major component of the ripple-frequency oscillation in the local field potential and organize the phase-locked spiking of pyramidal cells. Optogenetic stimulation of parvalbumin-positive cells evoked full SWRs and EPSC sequences in pyramidal cells. Even with excitation blocked, tonic driving of parvalbumin-positive cells evoked ripple oscillations. Conversely, optogenetic silencing of parvalbumin-positive cells interrupted the SWRs or inhibited their occurrence. Local drug applications and modeling experiments confirmed that the activity of parvalbumin-positive perisomatic inhibitory neurons is both necessary and sufficient for ripple-frequency current and rhythm generation. These interneurons are thus essential in organizing pyramidal cell activity not only during gamma oscillation, but, in a different configuration, during SWRs.

Physiological sharp wave-ripples and interictal events in vitro: what's the difference?

Sharp wave-ripples and interictal events are physiological and pathological forms of transient high activity in the hippocampus with similar features. Sharp wave-ripples have been shown to be essential in memory consolidation, whereas epileptiform (interictal) events are thought to be damaging. It is essential to grasp the difference between physiological sharp wave-ripples and pathological interictal events to understand the failure of control mechanisms in the latter case. We investigated the dynamics of activity generated intrinsically in the Cornu Ammonis region 3 of the mouse hippocampus in vitro, using four different types of intervention to induce epileptiform activity. As a result, sharp wave-ripples spontaneously occurring in Cornu Ammonis region 3 disappeared, and following an asynchronous transitory phase, activity reorganized into a new form of pathological synchrony. During epileptiform events, all neurons increased their firing rate compared to sharp wave-ripples. Different cell types showed complementary firing: parvalbumin-positive basket cells and some axo-axonic cells stopped firing as a result of a depolarization block at the climax of the events in high potassium, 4-aminopyridine and zero magnesium models, but not in the gabazine model. In contrast, pyramidal cells began firing maximally at this stage. To understand the underlying mechanism we measured changes of intrinsic neuronal and transmission parameters in the high potassium model. We found that the cellular excitability increased and excitatory transmission was enhanced, whereas inhibitory transmission was compromised. We observed a strong short-term depression in parvalbumin-positive basket cell to pyramidal cell transmission. Thus, the collapse of pyramidal cell perisomatic inhibition appears to be a crucial factor in the emergence of epileptiform events.

Input-output features of anatomically identified CA3 neurons during hippocampal sharp wave/ripple oscillation in vitro.

Hippocampal sharp waves and the associated ripple oscillations (SWRs) are implicated in memory processes. These network events emerge intrinsically in the CA3 network. To understand cellular interactions that generate SWRs, we detected first spiking activity followed by recording of synaptic currents in distinct types of anatomically identified CA3 neurons during SWRs that occurred spontaneously in mouse hippocampal slices. We observed that the vast majority of interneurons fired during SWRs, whereas only a small portion of pyramidal cells was found to spike. There were substantial differences in the firing behavior among interneuron groups; parvalbumin-expressing basket cells were one of the most active GABAergic cells during SWRs, whereas ivy cells were silent. Analysis of the synaptic currents during SWRs uncovered that the dominant synaptic input to the pyramidal cell was inhibitory, whereas spiking interneurons received larger synaptic excitation than inhibition. The discharge of all interneurons was primarily determined by the magnitude and the timing of synaptic excitation. Strikingly, we observed that the temporal structure of synaptic excitation and inhibition during SWRs significantly differed between parvalbumin-containing basket cells, axoaxonic cells, and type 1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1)-expressing basket cells, which might explain their distinct recruitment to these synchronous events. Our data support the hypothesis that the active current sources restricted to the stratum pyramidale during SWRs originate from the synaptic output of parvalbumin-expressing basket cells. Thus, in addition to gamma oscillation, these GABAergic cells play a central role in SWR generation.

Endocannabinoid-mediated long-term depression of afferent excitatory synapses in hippocampal pyramidal cells and GABAergic interneurons.

Although endocannabinoids have emerged as essential retrograde messengers in several forms of synaptic plasticity, it remains controversial whether they mediate long-term depression (LTD) of glutamatergic synapses onto excitatory and inhibitory neurons in the hippocampus. Here, we show that parvalbumin- and somatostatin/metabotropic glutamate receptor 1(a) (mGlu(1a))-positive GABAergic interneurons express diacylglycerol lipase-α (DGL-α), a synthesizing enzyme of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), albeit at lower levels than principal cells. Moreover, this lipase accumulates postsynaptically around afferent excitatory synapses in all three cell types. To address the role of retrograde 2-AG signaling in LTD, we investigated two forms: (1) produced by postsynaptic spiking paired with subsequent presynaptic stimulation or (2) induced by group I mGlu activation by (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG). Neither form of LTD was evoked in the presence of the mGlu(5) antagonist MPEP [2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine], the DGL inhibitor THL [N-formyl-l-leucine (1S)-1-[[(2S,3S)-3-hexyl-4-oxo-2-oxetanyl]methyl]dodecyl ester], or the intracellularly applied Ca(2+) chelator BAPTA in CA1 pyramidal cells, fast-spiking interneurons (representing parvalbumin-containing cells) and interneurons projecting to stratum lacunosum-moleculare (representing somatostatin/mGlu(1a)-expressing interneurons). Both forms of LTD were completely absent in CB(1) cannabinoid receptor knock-out mice, whereas pharmacological blockade of CB(1) led to inconsistent results. Notably, in accordance with their lower DGL-α level, a higher stimulation frequency or higher DHPG concentration was required for LTD induction in interneurons compared with pyramidal cells. These findings demonstrate that hippocampal principal cells and interneurons produce endocannabinoids to mediate LTD in a qualitatively similar, but quantitatively different manner. The shifted induction threshold implies that endocannabinoid-LTD contributes to cortical information processing during distinct network activity patterns in a cell type-specific manner.

Different input and output properties characterize parvalbumin-positive basket and Axo-axonic cells in the hippocampal CA3 subfield.

In the hippocampus, parvalbumin-expressing basket (BC) and axo-axonic cells (AAC) show different discharge patterns during distinct network states, but the cellular mechanisms underlying these differences are not well understood. Using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques, we investigated the single-cell properties and excitatory synaptic features of anatomically identified BCs and AACs in the CA3 region of mouse hippocampal slices. The results showed that BCs had lower threshold for action potential (AP) generation and lower input resistance, narrower AP and afterhyperpolarization than AACs. In addition, BCs fired with higher frequencies and with more modest accommodation compared with AACs. The kinetic properties of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSC), the rectification of AMPA receptor-mediated currents, the fraction of the NMDA receptor-mediated component in EPSCs, and the EPSC magnitude necessary to evoke an AP were similar in both cell types. However, smaller excitatory postsynaptic potential and lower intensity fiber stimulation in stratum oriens was necessary to drive firing in BCs. Moreover, the rate of spontaneous EPSCs in BCs was higher than in AACs. Neurolucida analysis revealed that the dendrites of BCs in strata radiatum and oriens were longer and more extensively ramified. Since the density of the excitatory synapses was estimated to be comparable in both cell types, we conclude that the more elaborated dendritic arbor of BCs ensures that they receive a larger number of proximal excitatory inputs. Thus, CA3 pyramidal cells more profoundly innervate BCs than AACs, which could explain, at least in part, their distinct spiking behavior under different hippocampal network activities.

DAG-sensitive and Ca(2+) permeable TRPC6 channels are expressed in dentate granule cells and interneurons in the hippocampal formation.

Members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) cation channel family play important roles in several neuronal functions. To understand the precise role of these channels in information processing, their presence on neuronal elements must be revealed. In this study, we investigated the localization of TRPC6 channels in the adult hippocampal formation. Immunostainings with a specific antibody, which was validated in Trpc6 knockout mice, showed that in the dentate gyrus, TRPC6 channels are strongly expressed in granule cells. Immunogold staining revealing the subcellular localization of TRPC6 channels clarified that these proteins were predominantly present on the membrane surface of the dendritic shafts of dentate granule cells, and also in their axons, often associated with intracellular membrane cisternae. In addition, TRPC6 channels could be observed in the dendrites of some interneurons. Double immunofluorescent staining showed that TRPC6 channels were present in the dendrites of hilar interneurons and hippocampal interneurons with horizontal dendrites in the stratum oriens expressing mGlu1a receptors, whereas parvalbumin immunoreactivity was revealed in TRPC6-expressing dendrites with radial appearance in the stratum radiatum. Electron microscopy showed that the immunogold particles depicting TRPC6 channels were located on the surface membranes of the interneuron dendrites. Our results suggest that TRPC6 channels are in a key position to alter the information entry into the trisynaptic loop of the hippocampal formation from the entorhinal cortex, and to control the function of both feed-forward and feed-back inhibitory circuits in this brain region. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Petilla terminology: nomenclature of features of GABAergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex.

Neuroscience produces a vast amount of data from an enormous diversity of neurons. A neuronal classification system is essential to organize such data and the knowledge that is derived from them. Classification depends on the unequivocal identification of the features that distinguish one type of neuron from another. The problems inherent in this are particularly acute when studying cortical interneurons. To tackle this, we convened a representative group of researchers to agree on a set of terms to describe the anatomical, physiological and molecular features of GABAergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex. The resulting terminology might provide a stepping stone towards a future classification of these complex and heterogeneous cells. Consistent adoption will be important for the success of such an initiative, and we also encourage the active involvement of the broader scientific community in the dynamic evolution of this project.

The anxiolytic potential and psychotropic side effects of an echinacea preparation in laboratory animals and healthy volunteers.

We investigated the toxicity, psychotropic side effects and anxiolytic potential of an Echinacea angustifolia extract that produced promising effects in laboratory tests performed earlier. Rats were studied in the elevated plus-maze, conditioned fear, open-field, object recognition and conditioned place preference tests. Toxicity was studied in rats after intragastric administration. The preparation decreased anxiety in the elevated plus-maze and ameliorated contextual conditioned fear. No lethality or behavioural signs of discomfort were noticed in rats treated with 1000 and 3000 mg/kg Echinacea angustifolia. The extract was without effect in tests of locomotion (open-field), memory (object recognition) and rewarding potential (conditioned place preference) within a wide dose range. A pharmacological formulation based on the same E. angustifolia extract was tested in human subjects. One or two tablets per day were administered for 1 week to healthy volunteers scoring high on the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The tablets contained 20 mg of the plant extract. Data were collected using a structured self-assessment diary technique. The high dose (2 tablets per day) decreased STAI scores within 3 days in human subjects, an effect that remained stable for the duration of the treatment (7 days) and for the 2 weeks that followed treatment. The lower dose (1 tablet per day) did not affect anxiety significantly.

The medial septum controls hippocampal supra-theta oscillations.

Hippocampal theta oscillations orchestrate faster beta-to-gamma oscillations facilitating the segmentation of neural representations during navigation and episodic memory. Supra-theta rhythms of hippocampal CA1 are coordinated by local interactions as well as inputs from the entorhinal cortex (EC) and CA3 inputs. However, theta-nested gamma-band activity in the medial septum (MS) suggests that the MS may control supra-theta CA1 oscillations. To address this, we performed multi-electrode recordings of MS and CA1 activity in rodents and found that MS neuron firing showed strong phase-coupling to theta-nested supra-theta episodes and predicted changes in CA1 beta-to-gamma oscillations on a cycle-by-cycle basis. Unique coupling patterns of anatomically defined MS cell types suggested that indirect MS-to-CA1 pathways via the EC and CA3 mediate distinct CA1 gamma-band oscillations. Optogenetic activation of MS parvalbumin-expressing neurons elicited theta-nested beta-to-gamma oscillations in CA1. Thus, the MS orchestrates hippocampal network activity at multiple temporal scales to mediate memory encoding and retrieval.

NMDA receptors in hippocampal GABAergic synapses and their role in nitric oxide signaling.

GABAergic inhibition plays a central role in the control of pyramidal cell ensemble activities; thus, any signaling mechanism that regulates inhibition is able to fine-tune network patterns. Here, we provide evidence that the retrograde nitric oxide (NO)-cGMP cascade triggered by NMDA receptor (NMDAR) activation plays a role in the control of hippocampal GABAergic transmission in mice. GABAergic synapses express neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) postsynaptically and NO receptors (NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase) in the presynaptic terminals. We hypothesized that--similar to glutamatergic synapses--the Ca(2+) transients required to activate nNOS were provided by NMDA receptor activation. Indeed, administration of 5 µm NMDA induced a robust nNOS-dependent cGMP production in GABAergic terminals, selectively in the CA1 and CA3c areas. Furthermore, using preembedding, postembedding, and SDS-digested freeze-fracture replica immunogold labeling, we provided quantitative immunocytochemical evidence that NMDAR subunits GluN1, GluN2A, and GluN2B were present in most somatic GABAergic synapses postsynaptically. These data indicate that NMDARs can modulate hippocampal GABAergic inhibition via NO-cGMP signaling in an activity-dependent manner and that this effect is subregion specific in the mouse hippocampus.

Complex propagation patterns characterize human cortical activity during slow-wave sleep.

Cortical electrical activity during nonrapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep is dominated by slow-wave activity (SWA). At larger spatial scales (∼2-30 cm), investigated by scalp EEG recordings, SWA has been shown to propagate globally over wide cortical regions as traveling waves, which has been proposed to serve as a temporal framework for neural plasticity. However, whether SWA dynamics at finer spatial scales also reflects the orderly propagation has not previously been investigated in humans. To reveal the local, finer spatial scale (∼1-6 cm) patterns of SWA propagation during non-REM sleep, electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings were conducted from subdurally implanted electrode grids and a nonlinear correlation technique [mutual information (MI)] was implemented. MI analysis revealed spatial maps of correlations between cortical areas demonstrating SWA propagation directions, speed, and association strength. Highest correlations, indicating significant coupling, were detected during the initial positive-going deflection of slow waves. SWA propagated predominantly between adjacent cortical areas, albeit spatial noncontinuities were also frequently observed. MI analysis further uncovered significant convergence and divergence patterns. Areas receiving the most convergent activity were similar to those with high divergence rate, while reciprocal and circular propagation of SWA was also frequent. We hypothesize that SWA is characterized by distinct attributes depending on the spatial scale observed. At larger spatial scales, the orderly SWA propagation dominates; at the finer scale of the ECoG recordings, non-REM sleep is characterized by complex SWA propagation patterns.

Extrinsic and local glutamatergic inputs of the rat hippocampal CA1 area differentially innervate pyramidal cells and interneurons.

The two main glutamatergic pathways to the CA1 area, the Schaffer collateral/commissural input and the entorhinal fibers, as well as the local axons of CA1 pyramidal cells innervate both pyramidal cells and interneurons. To determine whether these inputs differ in their weights of activating GABAergic circuits, we have studied the relative proportion of pyramidal cells and interneurons among their postsynaptic targets in serial electron microscopic sections. Local axons of CA1 pyramidal cells, intracellularly labeled in vitro or in vivo, innervated a relatively high proportion of interneuronal postsynaptic targets (65.9 and 53.8%, in vitro and in vivo, respectively) in stratum (str.) oriens and alveus. In contrast, axons of in vitro labeled CA3 pyramidal cells in str. oriens and str. radiatum of the CA1 area made synaptic junctions predominantly with pyramidal cell spines (92.9%). The postsynaptic targets of anterogradely labeled medial entorhinal cortical boutons in CA1 str. lacunosum-moleculare were primarily pyramidal neuron dendritic spines and shafts (90.8%). The alvear group of the entorhinal afferents, traversing str. oriens, str. pyramidale, and str. radiatum showed a higher preference for innervating GABAergic cells (21.3%), particularly in str. oriens/alveus. These data demonstrate that different glutamatergic pathways innervate CA1 GABAergic cells to different extents. The results suggest that the numerically smaller CA1 local axonal inputs together with the alvear part of the entorhinal input preferentially act on GABAergic interneurons in contrast to the CA3, or the entorhinal input in str. lacunosum-moleculare. The results highlight differences in the postsynaptic target selection of the feed-forward versus recurrent glutamatergic inputs to the CA1 and CA3 areas.

Nitric oxide signaling modulates synaptic transmission during early postnatal development.

Early γ-aminobutyric acid mediated (GABAergic) synaptic transmission and correlated neuronal activity are fundamental to network formation; however, their regulation during early postnatal development is poorly understood. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important retrograde messenger at glutamatergic synapses, and it was recently shown to play an important role also at GABAergic synapses in the adult brain. The subcellular localization and network effect of this signaling pathway during early development are so far unexplored, but its disruption at this early age is known to lead to profound morphological and functional alterations. Here, we provide functional evidence--using whole-cell recording--that NO signaling modulates not only glutamatergic but also GABAergic synaptic transmission in the mouse hippocampus during the early postnatal period. We identified the precise subcellular localization of key elements of the underlying molecular cascade using immunohistochemistry at the light--and electron microscopic levels. As predicted by these morpho-functional data, multineuron calcium imaging in acute slices revealed that this NO-signaling machinery is involved also in the control of synchronous network activity patterns. We suggest that the retrograde NO-signaling system is ideally suited to fulfill a general presynaptic regulatory role and may effectively fine-tune network activity during early postnatal development, while GABAergic transmission is still depolarizing.