Implications of differences between point-of-care blood gas analyser and laboratory analyser potassium results on hyperkalaemia diagnosis & treatment.

BACKGROUND: Hyperkalaemia is managed in the emergency department (ED) following measurement of potassium results by blood gas analysers (BGA) or laboratory analysers (LAB). AIMS: To determine the prevalence of clinically significant differences between BGA and LAB potassium results and the impact on ED hyperkalaemia management. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of time-matched ED BGA and LAB potassium samples from 2019 to 2020 (taken within 15 min, one or both results ≥6.0 mmol/L). Mean differences and 95% limits of agreement (LoA) were determined for pairs with one or both results ≥6.0 mmol/L and a separate 500 consecutive sample pairs. RESULTS: Four hundred eighty-eight matched BGA and LAB samples met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 201 (41.2%) differed by ≤0.5 mmol/L, 169 (34.6%) included a haemolysed LAB sample, and 12 (2.5%) had an unreportable BGA sample. One hundred six (21.7%) pairs differed by >0.5 mmol/L, and 60/106 (57%) had normal LAB potassium results, but BGA indicated moderate/severe hyperkalaemia (two of these pairs received hyperkalaemia treatment). Of patients with a haemolysed LAB sample, or where pairs differed by >0.5 mmol, 48 were treated with insulin and five (10.4%) experienced hypoglycaemia. Mean differences and LoA for pairs with LAB results <6.0 mmol/L but BGA ≥6.0 mmol/L demonstrated unacceptable agreement, with 18 (25.7%) BGA results exceeding 8.0 mmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: Potentially significant discordance may occur between BGA and LAB potassium results. Clinicians need to be aware of factors impacting both analytical methods' accuracy (such as poor venepuncture or sample handling, (K) EDTA interference) and undetectable haemolysis with BGA measurements. We recommend BGA hyperkalaemia be confirmed with LAB results using a non-haemolysed sample where time permits.

Medication not accounted for in hospital electronic medication administration records: a retrospective observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the nature, extent, and cost of discrepancies between the quantities of medications supplied to medical departments and administered to patients in public hospitals. DESIGN: Multicentre, retrospective observational study; analysis of electronic pharmacy drug management system (medication supply) and medication administration data for twenty frequently used medications. SETTING, PARTICIPANTS: Medical, surgical, and emergency department (ED) wards in each of four public hospitals in Melbourne, Victoria, during the 2019 calendar year. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Discrepancy between the quantity of medication supplied and administered to patients (as proportion of medication supplied), overall and by hospital and ward type; direct cost to the hospitals of the discrepancies. RESULTS: The overall discrepancy rate (all medications, hospitals, ward types) was 19.2% (95% CI, 19.0-19.4%); overall rates by hospital ranged from 5.8% (95% CI, 5.7-5.9%) to 26.7% (95% CI, 26.6-26.9%). The discrepancies were largest for medications useful for self-treatment: oral antibiotics (eg, phenoxymethylpenicillin 250 mg capsule, 86.8%; 95% CI, 83.1-89.9%) and gastrointestinal medications (eg, ondansetron 4 mg tablet, 53.3%; 95% CI, 52.9-53.7%). Discrepancies were larger for oral than equivalent (or similar) parenteral formulations; they were generally low for controlled medications (temazepam, diazepam, oxycodone). Overall discrepancies were larger for EDs (32.3%; 95% CI, 32.2-32.5%) than for admitted patient wards, but differed between EDs (range: 25.7%; 95% CI, 25.5-26.0% to 39.5%; 95% CI, 39.2-39.7%). The estimated direct cost to hospitals of the discrepancies for the selected medications was $27 800. CONCLUSION: Substantial quantities of medications supplied to hospital wards and EDs are not accounted for in electronic administration records.

A prospective, randomized, double-blind trial of intravenous chlorpromazine versus intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute migraine in adults presenting to the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy of intravenous chlorpromazine versus intravenous prochlorperazine for the treatment of acute migraine in adults presenting to the emergency department (ED). BACKGROUND: Migraine is a common, incapacitating neurological condition. Although chlorpromazine and prochlorperazine are known to be safe, efficacious treatments for migraine, they have never been directly compared. DESIGN: We performed a prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial at a tertiary hospital in Melbourne, Australia. Adults aged 18-65 years, who presented with migraine, were eligible for recruitment. Sixty-six patients were randomized to either chlorpromazine 12.5 mg or prochlorperazine 12.5 mg, both infused in 500 ml of sodium chloride 0.9% over 30 min. Headache severity score, nausea severity score, and the presence of photophobia and phonophobia were assessed at 0, 30, 60, and 120 min. Adverse effects and the need for rescue therapy were recorded. The primary outcome was a reduction in headache severity score from baseline at 60 min post-commencement of the study medicine infusion. RESULTS: Sixty-five patients were included in the analysis. There was a median reduction in headache severity score at 60 min of 3.0 (interquartile range 1.0-4.0) in the chlorpromazine arm versus 2.0 (1.0-4.0) in the prochlorperazine arm (median difference -0.5 (95% confidence interval, -1.9 to 0.9)). We saw no evidence of a difference in secondary outcomes at 30, 60, or 120 min. Side effects were reported in 16/32 (50%) patients in the chlorpromazine group versus 7/33 (21%) in the prochlorperazine group (p = 0.020). Rescue therapy was required in 7/32 (22%) patients in the chlorpromazine group versus 12/33 (36%) in the prochlorperazine group (p = 0.277). CONCLUSIONS: Both chlorpromazine and prochlorperazine are efficacious treatments for acute migraine in adult patients presenting to the ED. This trial found no evidence of superiority of either agent over the other. Caution should be used when prescribing these medicines in the borderline hypotensive patient; in that circumstance, prochlorperazine should be preferentially used.

Improving the safety of anticoagulation initiation in patients discharged from the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To improve the safety of anticoagulation initiation by increasing the proportion of patients reviewed by a pharmacist. METHODS: An electronic intervention was developed to ensure all patients prescribed anticoagulation on discharge were reviewed by an ED pharmacist. Safe anticoagulation initiation was compared for patients seen and not seen. RESULTS: The intervention increased the number of patients seen by an ED pharmacist. Pre-intervention (n = 238) 84.5% of patients were reviewed by a pharmacist. Post-intervention (n = 253) 99.6% of patients were reviewed by a pharmacist. Of the 38 patients not reviewed by a pharmacist, 20 (52.6%) had safe anticoagulation initiation and in a sample of 40 patients reviewed by a pharmacist, all 40 (100%) had safe anticoagulation initiation (52.6% vs 100%, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The real-time electronic intervention improved the number of patients reviewed by a pharmacist. ED pharmacist reviewed patients were more likely to have safe anticoagulation initiation.

Development of Screening Tools to Predict Medication-Related Problems Across the Continuum of Emergency Department Care: A Prospective, Multicenter Study.

Background: Medication-related problems (MRPs) occur across the continuum of emergency department (ED) care: they may contribute to ED presentation, occur in the ED/short-stay unit (SSU), at hospital admission, or shortly after discharge to the community. This project aimed to determine predictors for MRPs across the continuum of ED care and incorporate these into screening tools (one for use at ED presentation and one at ED/SSU discharge), to identify patients at greatest risk, who could be targeted by ED pharmacists. Methods: A prospective, observational, multicenter study was undertaken in nine EDs, between July 2016 and August 2017. Blocks of ten consecutive adult patients presenting at pre-specified times were identified. Within 1 week of ED discharge, a pharmacist interviewed patients and undertook a medical record review to determine a medication history, patient understanding of treatment, risk factors for MRPs and to manage the MRPs. Logistic regression was undertaken to determine predictor variables. Multivariable regression beta coefficients were used to develop a scoring system for the two screening tools. Results: Of 1,238 patients meeting all inclusion criteria, 904 were recruited. Characteristics predicting MRPs related to ED presentation were: patient self-administers regular medications (OR = 7.95, 95%CI = 3.79-16.65), carer assists with medication administration (OR = 15.46, 95%CI = 6.52-36.67), or health-professional administers (OR = 5.01, 95%CI = 1.77-14.19); medication-related ED presentation (OR = 9.95, 95%CI = 4.92-20.10); age ≥80 years (OR = 3.63, 95%CI = 1.96-6.71), or age 65-79 years (OR = 2.01, 95%CI = 1.17-3.46); potential medication adherence issue (OR = 2.27, 95%CI = 1.38-3.73); medical specialist seen in past 6-months (OR = 2.02, 95%CI = 1.42-2.85); pharmaceutical benefit/pension/concession cardholder (OR = 1.89, 95%CI = 1.28-2.78); inpatient in previous 4-weeks (OR = 1.60, 95%CI = 1.02-2.52); being male (OR = 1.48, 95%CI = 1.05-2.10); and difficulties reading labels (OR = 0.63, 95%CI = 0.40-0.99). Characteristics predicting MRPs related to ED discharge were: potential medication adherence issue (OR = 6.80, 95%CI = 3.97-11.64); stay in ED > 8 h (OR = 3.23, 95%CI = 1.47-7.78); difficulties reading labels (OR = 2.33, 95%CI = 1.30-4.16); and medication regimen changed in ED (OR = 3.91, 95%CI = 2.43-6.30). For ED presentation, the model had a C-statistic of 0.84 (95% CI 0.81-0.86) (sensitivity = 80%, specificity = 70%). For ED discharge, the model had a C-statistic of 0.78 (95% CI 0.73-0.83) (sensitivity = 82%, specificity = 57%). Conclusion: Predictors of MRPs are readily available at the bedside and may be used to screen for patients at greatest risk upon ED presentation and upon ED/SSU discharge to the community. These screening tools now require external validation and implementation studies to evaluate the impact of using such tools on patient care outcomes.

Estimating the proportion of patients who transition to long-term opioid use following oxycodone initiation in the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To report the number of patients discharged from ED with oxycodone immediate release (IR) over 12 months and estimate the proportion who potentially transition to long-term opioid use and subsequent injectable heroin use. METHODS: Retrospective observational data were collected from a major tertiary-referral metropolitan ED in Melbourne, Australia, describing the number of patients discharged with an oxycodone IR prescription and proportion of discharge scripts filled. These data were projected against published data reporting trends on patients' trajectory to long-term opioid use, to subsequently estimate the proportion of patients from this cohort that may transition to injectable heroin use. RESULTS: Of the 87 551 ED presentations in 2018, there were 4843 prescriptions written for oxycodone IR for 4102 different patients. An estimated 279 patients may become long-term opioid users following initial ED presentation. Of these 279 patients, 1.4 patients may potentially transition to injectable heroin use. CONCLUSION: Modelling opioid use behaviour in an ED population demonstrated the potential development of unintentional long-term opioid use, and associated harms. Prospective study is required to fully understand trajectories of patients dispensed outpatient therapy from Australian EDs.

Thunderstorm asthma medication management during an external emergency (Code Brown): An observational study of the impact of electronic prescribing and clinical documentation.

BACKGROUND: On 21 November 2016, during a thunderstorm asthma event, an external disaster was called in our Emergency Department (ED), the first since comprehensive implementation of electronic clinical documentation. This study compared medication ordering and administration documentation during surge (thunderstorm asthma) and non-surge (control) conditions. METHODS: Retrospective audit of ED patients presenting with asthma between 21 and 23 November 2016 (72-h thunderstorm asthma period) and equivalent 72-h periods of the preceding three weeks (control period). Demographic details, medical history and treatment were extracted from Cerner Millennium. RESULTS: During the thunderstorm asthma and control periods, 318 and 164 patients presented with respiratory symptoms; 302 (95.0%) and 27 (16.5%) were due to asthma, respectively. Salbutamol was ordered and administration signed on the Medication Administration Record for 122/302 (40.4%) thunderstorm asthma and 21/27 (77.8%) control patients (p<0.01). During the thunderstorm asthma period, 52/302 (17.2%) patients had no documentation on the Medication Administration Record or any ED notes of receiving salbutamol, whilst during the control periods 2/27 (7.4%) patients had no such documentation. Similar disparities with corticosteroids and ipratropium were identified. CONCLUSION: Quality of medication documentation declined during surge conditions. These data have informed policies for future surge events, when higher risk medications might be required.

Comprehensive identification of medication-related problems occurring prior to, during and after emergency department presentation: An Australian multicentre, prospective, observational study.

OBJECTIVE: Patients present to EDs with various medication-related problems (MRPs). MRPs are also associated with ED care, occurring during ED presentation or shortly afterwards. The aim of the present study is to describe the prevalence and nature of MRPs that occur prior to, during or shortly after leaving ED. METHODS: We undertook a prospective, observational study in nine Australian EDs. Blocks of 10 consecutive adult patients who were not seen by a pharmacist in ED and who presented at pre-specified times were identified. Within 1 week of ED discharge, a pharmacist interviewed patients and undertook a medical record review to determine their medication history, patients' understanding of treatment, potential MRP risk factors and manage any identified MRPs. RESULTS: A total of 904 patients were recruited: 14.8% aged ≥80 years, 18.9% taking more than eight regular medications; 581 MRPs were identified; 287 (49.4%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 45.3-53.5%) of moderate-high significance. Most highly significant MRPs involved high-risk medications, particularly strong opioids, insulin and anti-coagulants. The most common types of MRPs were prescribing errors (46.8%), patient adherence/knowledge issues (31.2%) and adverse drug reactions (7.4%). Of all patients, 381 (42.1%, 95% CI 38.9-45.5%) had at least one MRP; 31.4% (95% CI 28.4-34.6%) had MRPs that could be identified or managed by screening at ED presentation and 12.4% (95% CI 10.4-14.8%) had MRPs that could be identified or managed by screening at ED discharge. CONCLUSIONS: Patients experienced a range of MRPs throughout the ED continuum of care. From these data, screening tools will be developed so that ED clinicians may identify patients at greatest risk of MRPs.

Misappropriation of medications and equipment in the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the nature and extent of misappropriation of medications and equipment from the ED. METHODS: We undertook a retrospective audit of medications procured and administered, and equipment replaced, in 2016, within a tertiary referral ED. Medication procurement and administration data were obtained from our MERLIN® pharmacy system and CERNER® electronic prescribing system, respectively. A medication 'discrepancy rate' was defined as the percentage of a medication procured that could not be accounted for by electronic administrations. The study also comprised a nested intervention sub-study where, from July 1, 2016, all Panadeine Forte tablets were stored in a locked facility. Victorian Hospital Healthcare Equipment invoices were audited to determine which major non-disposable equipment items most commonly needed resupply. RESULTS: Discrepancy rates for paracetamol 500mg and 665mg tablets were 23.3% and 54.9%, respectively. Following the Panadeine Forte intervention, the discrepancy rate for this medication fell from 70.5% to 8.8%. Orally administered medications with the potential for misappropriation had high discrepancy rates: caffeine (90.6%), cephalexin (62.9%), ondansetron (50.1%), pantoprazole (42.9%), amoxicillin (41.1%), metoclopramide (41.0%) and the 'morning after pill' (levonorgestrel) (36.4%). Parenterally administered medications had lower discrepancy rates: ceftriaxone (7.9%) and ampicillin (3.4%). The largest equipment replacement rates were for tourniquets and crutches. CONCLUSION: Discrepancy rates for many medications, especially those administered orally, are high. Further research is required to determine how these medications 'go missing'. Placing a medication with a high discrepancy rate in a locked facility with a 'logbook' substantially reduces this rate. Misappropriation of non-disposable equipment items is uncommon.

Modifying emergency department electronic prescribing for outpatient opioid analgesia.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to examine how changing the electronic ordering sequences for opioid analgesics affected ED outpatient prescribing, and subsequent unused opioid tablets remaining in the community available for diversion. METHODS: A descriptive before and after study in adult patients prescribed an opioid analgesic by an ED prescriber for use in the outpatient setting. The hospital electronic prescribing system (FirstNet™) was modified to include smaller quantities of opioid analgesics for discharge. The change in quantity of opioid prescribed and change in quantity of opioid analgesic remaining in the community at follow up was measured pre- and post-intervention using a structured telephone interview. RESULTS: Pre- and post-intervention, 102 and 106 patients were interviewed, respectively. Percentage of prescriptions for oxycodone quantity five tablets increased from 3% to 32% and for quantity 20 tablets fell from 40% to 24% post-intervention. For paracetamol with codeine, prescriptions for quantity 10 tablets increased from 2% to 24% while for quantity 20 tablets fell from 98% to 76%. Mean number of tablets prescribed per patient fell from 13.8 (SD = 5.1) to 10.8 (SD = 5.6) for oxycodone and from 19.8 (SD = 1.5) to 17.6 (SD = 4.2) for paracetamol with codeine. Fifty-eight percent of patients in both pre- and post-intervention groups used half or less of the medication prescribed. CONCLUSION: Modification of an ED electronic prescribing system reduced overall quantities of opioid analgesics supplied and subsequently stored in the community but did not change the proportion of patients (>50%) who reported using half or less of their prescribed opioid medication.

Evaluation of medication dose omissions amongst inpatients in a hospital using an electronic Medication Management System.

RATIONALE, AIMS, AND OBJECTIVES: Whilst many dose omissions cause no patient harm, inappropriate dose omissions have been associated with increased length of hospital stay, risk of sepsis, and mortality. This study aimed to comprehensively describe the prevalence and nature of omitted doses overall and of high risk medication dose omissions in an organization using an electronic Medication Management System. METHODS: A retrospective cross-sectional study was undertaken in an Australian tertiary referral health service. All routinely documented electronic inpatient dose administration records from 1st July 2014 to 30th June 2015 were included. Period prevalence and characteristics of dose omissions overall and of high-risk medication dose omissions were determined. RESULTS: During the study period, 3.3 million inpatient doses were scheduled for administration, with doses endorsed as "not given" comprising 6.2% of all scheduled doses. Non-valid dose omissions (medication not available or no justification documented) comprised 1.2% of scheduled doses. Patient refusal accounted for one third of all dose omissions, while for 12% no explanation was provided and 7% were endorsed "medication not available". High-risk medications accounted for 20% of all dose omissions. One in 20 antimicrobial doses scheduled were omitted, and of these, 17% were due to patient refusal. CONCLUSION: The period prevalence of dose omissions in this large study after electronic Medication Management System implementation is similar to that found when paper charts were used. Although most dose omissions appear appropriate, many orders were not given due to patient refusal or with no documented justification. Interventions to minimize unintentional dose omissions are indicated.

Accuracy of medication information sources compared to the best possible medication history for patients presenting to the emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of medication information sources available for adult patients presenting to the ED, compared to a best possible medication history (BPMH). METHODS: This prospective observational study was undertaken in the ED of a major tertiary-referral teaching hospital. A convenience sample of consecutive adult patients taking one or more regular medications was included. A BPMH was ascertained using patient/carer interviews, where available, and confirmed with one or more other sources. For residential care facility (RCF) patients, the RCF medication chart and at least one other source were used. Information sources compared with the BPMH were community pharmacy dispensing history, patient's own medications, patient's medication list, general practitioner letter, medications stored in and labelled on dose administration aids (DAAs) and the RCF chart. Number of discrepancies per patient for each source was determined by comparing medications and dose regimens to those documented in the BPMH. RESULTS: A total of 455 patients (median age 71 years) took a median of six 'regular' and two 'as required' medications. The median number (range) of discrepancies per patient for regular medication names and dosages were RCF chart 0 (0-3), DAA contents 2.0 (0-9), patient's medication list 2.5 (0-16), DAA medications label 3.0 (0-7), community pharmacy history 3.0 (0-19), general practitioner letter 3.0 (0-18) and patient's own medications 4.0 (0-16). Overall, 40.4% of discrepancies were deemed 'moderate' or 'high' clinical significance. Omission errors accounted for 55.6% of discrepancies. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of sources is essential to determine the BPMH. RCF charts provided the most accurate information. Other sources had two to four regular medication-related discrepancies per patient.

Evaluation of a targeted prescriber education intervention on emergency department discharge oxycodone prescribing.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of an educational intervention on ED discharge opioid analgesic (OA) prescribing. METHODS: A brief, one-on-one, educational intervention was delivered to ED OA prescribers by an ED clinical champion. The percentage of patients receiving (i) written advice regarding appropriate oxycodone use, (ii) written or verbal advice regarding appropriate post-discharge follow up and (iii) written general practitioner notification that oxycodone had been prescribed were determined pre- and post-intervention, through review of electronic patient records and structured patient telephone interviews conducted 3-7 days after ED attendance. Secondary outcomes included total amount prescribed and use of non-OA therapies. ED OA prescribers were surveyed to evaluate perceived effectiveness and intervention acceptability. RESULTS: A total of 30 ED OA prescribers received the 5-min intervention. Pre- and post-intervention, 80 and 81 patients were interviewed, respectively. Percentage of patients given written OA information increased from 10% to 22% (P = 0.04) and those receiving follow-up advice increased from 61 to 94% (P < 0.01). General practitioner notification of OA prescription increased from 15% to 88% (P < 0.01). Risk ratio for achieving all three end-points was 7.5 (95% confidence interval 1.8-32, P = 0.01). Median total amount of oxycodone prescribed/patient decreased from 100mg to 50mg (P = 0.04). Non-OA therapies were used by 49% of pre-intervention and 85% of post-intervention patients (P = <0.01). All ED OA prescribers agreed the intervention would change their prescribing practices; 70% deemed the intervention appropriate for delivery in their work environment. CONCLUSION: A brief, one-on-one educational intervention targeting ED OA prescribers was well received by clinicians and associated with improved quality of OA prescribing.