Membrane remodeling induced by the dynamin-related protein Drp1 stimulates Bax oligomerization.

In response to many apoptotic stimuli, oligomerization of Bax is essential for mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and the ensuing release of cytochrome c. These events are accompanied by mitochondrial fission that appears to require Drp1, a large GTPase of the dynamin superfamily. Loss of Drp1 leads to decreased cytochrome c release by a mechanism that is poorly understood. Here we show that Drp1 stimulates tBid-induced Bax oligomerization and cytochrome c release by promoting tethering and hemifusion of membranes in vitro. This function of Drp1 is independent of its GTPase activity and relies on arginine 247 and the presence of cardiolipin in membranes. In cells, overexpression of Drp1 R247A/E delays Bax oligomerization and cell death. Our findings uncover a function of Drp1 and provide insight into the mechanism of Bax oligomerization.

Inhibition of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier in astrocytes reduces amyloid and tau accumulation in the 3xTgAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is characterized by an accumulation of pathologic amyloid-beta (Aß) and Tau proteins, neuroinflammation, metabolic changes and neuronal death. Reactive astrocytes participate in these pathophysiological processes by releasing pro-inflammatory molecules and recruiting the immune system, which further reinforces inflammation and contributes to neuronal death. Besides these neurotoxic effects, astrocytes can protect neurons by providing them with high amounts of lactate as energy fuel. Astrocytes rely on aerobic glycolysis to generate lactate by reducing pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, through lactate dehydrogenase. Consequently, limited amounts of pyruvate enter astrocytic mitochondria through the Mitochondrial Pyruvate Carrier (MPC) to be oxidized. The MPC is a heterodimer composed of two subunits MPC1 and MPC2, the function of which in astrocytes has been poorly investigated. Here, we analyzed the role of the MPC in the pathogeny of AD, knowing that a reduction in overall glucose metabolism has been associated with a drop in cognitive performances and an accumulation of Aß and Tau. We generated 3xTgAD mice in which MPC1 was knocked-out in astrocytes specifically and focused our study on the biochemical hallmarks of the disease, mainly Aß and neurofibrillary tangle production. We show that inhibition of the MPC before the onset of the disease significantly reduces the quantity of Aß and Tau aggregates in the brain of 3xTgAD mice, suggesting that acting on astrocytic glucose metabolism early on could hinder the progression of the disease.

The FASTK family proteins fine-tune mitochondrial RNA processing.

Transcription of the human mitochondrial genome and correct processing of the two long polycistronic transcripts are crucial for oxidative phosphorylation. According to the tRNA punctuation model, nucleolytic processing of these large precursor transcripts occurs mainly through the excision of the tRNAs that flank most rRNAs and mRNAs. However, some mRNAs are not punctuated by tRNAs, and it remains largely unknown how these non-canonical junctions are resolved. The FASTK family proteins are emerging as key players in non-canonical RNA processing. Here, we have generated human cell lines carrying single or combined knockouts of several FASTK family members to investigate their roles in non-canonical RNA processing. The most striking phenotypes were obtained with loss of FASTKD4 and FASTKD5 and with their combined double knockout. Comprehensive mitochondrial transcriptome analyses of these cell lines revealed a defect in processing at several canonical and non-canonical RNA junctions, accompanied by an increase in specific antisense transcripts. Loss of FASTKD5 led to the most severe phenotype with marked defects in mitochondrial translation of key components of the electron transport chain complexes and in oxidative phosphorylation. We reveal that the FASTK protein family members are crucial regulators of non-canonical junction and non-coding mitochondrial RNA processing.

The yeast mitochondrial pyruvate carrier is a hetero-dimer in its functional state.

The mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) is critical for cellular homeostasis, as it is required in central metabolism for transporting pyruvate from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix. MPC has been implicated in many diseases and is being investigated as a drug target. A few years ago, small membrane proteins, called MPC1 and MPC2 in mammals and Mpc1, Mpc2 and Mpc3 in yeast, were proposed to form large protein complexes responsible for this function. However, the MPC complexes have never been isolated and their composition, oligomeric state and functional properties have not been defined. Here, we identify the functional unit of MPC from Saccharomyces cerevisiae In contrast to earlier hypotheses, we demonstrate that MPC is a hetero-dimer, not a multimeric complex. When not engaged in hetero-dimers, the yeast Mpc proteins can also form homo-dimers that are, however, inactive. We show that the earlier described substrate transport properties and inhibitor profiles are embodied by the hetero-dimer. This work provides a foundation for elucidating the structure of the functional complex and the mechanism of substrate transport and inhibition.

Granzyme a, a stealth killer in the mitochondrion.

The induction of caspase-independent cell death by killer lymphocytes involves the serine protease granzyme A (GzmA). In this issue, Martinvalet et al. (2008) show that GzmA penetrates the mitochondrial matrix without perturbing normal mitochondrial functions. In the mitochondrial matrix, GzmA cleaves NDUFS3 (a component of the electron transport chain) leading to production of reactive oxygen species and ultimately to cell death.

Monitoring Mitochondrial Pyruvate Carrier Activity in Real Time Using a BRET-Based Biosensor: Investigation of the Warburg Effect.

The transport of pyruvate into mitochondria requires a specific carrier, the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC). The MPC represents a central node of carbon metabolism, and its activity is likely to play a key role in bioenergetics. Until now, investigation of the MPC activity has been limited. However, the recent molecular identification of the components of the carrier has allowed us to engineer a genetically encoded biosensor and to monitor the activity of the MPC in real time in a cell population or in a single cell. We report that the MPC activity is low in cancer cells, which mainly rely on glycolysis to generate ATP, a characteristic known as the Warburg effect. We show that this low activity can be reversed by increasing the concentration of cytosolic pyruvate, thus increasing oxidative phosphorylation. This biosensor represents a unique tool to investigate carbon metabolism and bioenergetics in various cell types.

Caspase Inhibition Modulates Monocyte-Derived Macrophage Polarization in Damaged Tissues.

Circulating monocytes are recruited in damaged tissues to generate macrophages that modulate disease progression. Colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) promotes the generation of monocyte-derived macrophages, which involves caspase activation. Here, we demonstrate that activated caspase-3 and caspase-7 are located to the vicinity of the mitochondria in CSF1-treated human monocytes. Active caspase-7 cleaves p47PHOX at aspartate 34, which promotes the formation of the NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) oxidase complex NOX2 and the production of cytosolic superoxide anions. Monocyte response to CSF-1 is altered in patients with a chronic granulomatous disease, which are constitutively defective in NOX2. Both caspase-7 down-regulation and radical oxygen species scavenging decrease the migration of CSF-1-induced macrophages. Inhibition or deletion of caspases prevents the development of lung fibrosis in mice exposed to bleomycin. Altogether, a non-conventional pathway that involves caspases and activates NOX2 is involved in CSF1-driven monocyte differentiation and could be therapeutically targeted to modulate macrophage polarization in damaged tissues.

The mitochondrial carrier pathway transports non-canonical substrates with an odd number of transmembrane segments.

BACKGROUND: The mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) plays a central role in energy metabolism by transporting pyruvate across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Its heterodimeric composition and homology to SWEET and semiSWEET transporters set the MPC apart from the canonical mitochondrial carrier family (named MCF or SLC25). The import of the canonical carriers is mediated by the carrier translocase of the inner membrane (TIM22) pathway and is dependent on their structure, which features an even number of transmembrane segments and both termini in the intermembrane space. The import pathway of MPC proteins has not been elucidated. The odd number of transmembrane segments and positioning of the N-terminus in the matrix argues against an import via the TIM22 carrier pathway but favors an import via the flexible presequence pathway. RESULTS: Here, we systematically analyzed the import pathways of Mpc2 and Mpc3 and report that, contrary to an expected import via the flexible presequence pathway, yeast MPC proteins with an odd number of transmembrane segments and matrix-exposed N-terminus are imported by the carrier pathway, using the receptor Tom70, small TIM chaperones, and the TIM22 complex. The TIM9·10 complex chaperones MPC proteins through the mitochondrial intermembrane space using conserved hydrophobic motifs that are also required for the interaction with canonical carrier proteins. CONCLUSIONS: The carrier pathway can import paired and non-paired transmembrane helices and translocate N-termini to either side of the mitochondrial inner membrane, revealing an unexpected versatility of the mitochondrial import pathway for non-cleavable inner membrane proteins.

RNA Granules in the Mitochondria and Their Organization under Mitochondrial Stresses.

The human mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) regulates its transcription products in specialised and distinct ways as compared to nuclear transcription. Thanks to its mtDNA mitochondria possess their own set of tRNAs, rRNAs and mRNAs that encode a subset of the protein subunits of the electron transport chain complexes. The RNA regulation within mitochondria is organised within specialised, membraneless, compartments of RNA-protein complexes, called the Mitochondrial RNA Granules (MRGs). MRGs were first identified to contain nascent mRNA, complexed with many proteins involved in RNA processing and maturation and ribosome assembly. Most recently, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) species, a hybrid of the two complementary mRNA strands, were found to form granules in the matrix of mitochondria. These RNA granules are therefore components of the mitochondrial post-transcriptional pathway and as such play an essential role in mitochondrial gene expression. Mitochondrial dysfunctions in the form of, for example, RNA processing or RNA quality control defects, or inhibition of mitochondrial fission, can cause the loss or the aberrant accumulation of these RNA granules. These findings underline the important link between mitochondrial maintenance and the efficient expression of its genome.

In vivo stabilization of OPA1 in hepatocytes potentiates mitochondrial respiration and gluconeogenesis in a prohibitin-dependent way.

Patients with fatty liver diseases present altered mitochondrial morphology and impaired metabolic function. Mitochondrial dynamics and related cell function require the uncleaved form of the dynamin-like GTPase OPA1. Stabilization of OPA1 might then confer a protective mechanism against stress-induced tissue damages. To study the putative role of hepatic mitochondrial morphology in a sick liver, we expressed a cleavage-resistant long form of OPA1 (L-OPA1Δ) in the liver of a mouse model with mitochondrial liver dysfunction (i.e. the hepatocyte-specific prohibitin-2 knockout (Hep-Phb2-/-) mice). Liver prohibitin-2 deficiency caused excessive proteolytic cleavage of L-OPA1, mitochondrial fragmentation, and increased apoptosis. These molecular alterations were associated with lipid accumulation, abolished gluconeogenesis, and extensive liver damage. Such liver dysfunction was associated with severe hypoglycemia. In prohibitin-2 knockout mice, expression of L-OPA1Δ by in vivo adenovirus delivery restored the morphology but not the function of mitochondria in hepatocytes. In prohibitin-competent mice, elongation of liver mitochondria by expression of L-OPA1Δ resulted in excessive glucose production associated with increased mitochondrial respiration. In conclusion, mitochondrial dynamics participates in the control of hepatic glucose production.

Regulation of mitochondrial pyruvate uptake by alternative pyruvate carrier complexes.

At the pyruvate branch point, the fermentative and oxidative metabolic routes diverge. Pyruvate can be transformed either into lactate in mammalian cells or into ethanol in yeast, or transported into mitochondria to fuel ATP production by oxidative phosphorylation. The recently discovered mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC), encoded by MPC1, MPC2, and MPC3 in yeast, is required for uptake of pyruvate into the organelle. Here, we show that while expression of Mpc1 is not dependent on the carbon source, expression of Mpc2 and Mpc3 is specific to fermentative or respiratory conditions, respectively. This gives rise to two alternative carrier complexes that we have termed MPCFERM and MPCOX. By constitutively expressing the two alternative complexes in yeast deleted for all three endogenous genes, we show that MPCOX has a higher transport activity than MPCFERM, which is dependent on the C-terminus of Mpc3. We propose that the alternative MPC subunit expression in yeast provides a way of adapting cellular metabolism to the nutrient availability.

Feasibility of neurochemically profiling mouse embryonic brain and its development in utero using 1 H MRS at 14.1 T.

We aimed to evaluate the feasibility of neurochemical profiling of embryonic mouse brain developments in utero and to seek potential in vivo evidence of an energy shift in a mitochondrial pyruvate carrier 1 (MPC1) deficient mouse model. C57BL/6 embryonic mouse brains were studied in utero by anatomical MRI and short echo localized proton (1 H) MRS at 14.1 T. Two embryonic stages were studied, the energy shift (e.g., embryonic day 12.5-13, E12.5-13) and close to the birth (E17.5-18). In addition, embryonic brains devoid of MPC1 were studied at E12.5-13. The MRI provided sufficient anatomical contrasts for visualization of embryonic brain. Localized 1 H MRS offered abundant metabolites through the embryonic development from E12.5 and close to the birth, e.g., E17.5 and beyond. The abundant neurochemical information at E12.5 provided metabolic status and processes relating to cellular development at this stage, i.e., the energy shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation, evidenced by accumulation of lactate in E12.5-13 embryonic brain devoid of MPC1. The further evolution of the neurochemical profile of embryonic brains at E17.5-18 is consistent with cellular and metabolic processes towards the birth. Localized 1 H MRS study of embryonic brain development in utero is feasible, and longitudinal neurochemical profiling of embryonic brains offers valuable insight into early brain development.

FASTKD1 and FASTKD4 have opposite effects on expression of specific mitochondrial RNAs, depending upon their endonuclease-like RAP domain.

FASTK family proteins have been identified as regulators of mitochondrial RNA homeostasis linked to mitochondrial diseases, but much remains unknown about these proteins. We show that CRISPR-mediated disruption of FASTKD1 increases ND3 mRNA level, while disruption of FASTKD4 reduces the level of ND3 and of other mature mRNAs including ND5 and CYB, and causes accumulation of ND5-CYB precursor RNA. Disrupting both FASTKD1 and FASTKD4 in the same cell results in decreased ND3 mRNA similar to the effect of depleting FASTKD4 alone, indicating that FASTKD4 loss is epistatic. Interestingly, very low levels of FASTKD4 are sufficient to prevent ND3 loss and ND5-CYB precursor accumulation, suggesting that FASTKD4 may act catalytically. Furthermore, structural modeling predicts that each RAP domain of FASTK proteins contains a nuclease fold with a conserved aspartate residue at the putative active site. Accordingly, mutation of this residue in FASTKD4 abolishes its function. Experiments with FASTK chimeras indicate that the RAP domain is essential for the function of the FASTK proteins, while the region upstream determines RNA targeting and protein localization. In conclusion, this paper identifies new aspects of FASTK protein biology and suggests that the RAP domain function depends on an intrinsic nucleolytic activity.

The FASTK family of proteins: emerging regulators of mitochondrial RNA biology.

The FASTK family proteins have recently emerged as key post-transcriptional regulators of mitochondrial gene expression. FASTK, the founding member and its homologs FASTKD1-5 are architecturally related RNA-binding proteins, each having a different function in the regulation of mitochondrial RNA biology, from mRNA processing and maturation to ribosome assembly and translation. In this review, we outline the structure, evolution and function of these FASTK proteins and discuss the individual role that each has in mitochondrial RNA biology. In addition, we highlight the aspects of FASTK research that still require more attention.

Embryonic Lethality of Mitochondrial Pyruvate Carrier 1 Deficient Mouse Can Be Rescued by a Ketogenic Diet.

Mitochondrial import of pyruvate by the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) is a central step which links cytosolic and mitochondrial intermediary metabolism. To investigate the role of the MPC in mammalian physiology and development, we generated a mouse strain with complete loss of MPC1 expression. This resulted in embryonic lethality at around E13.5. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) derived from mutant mice displayed defective pyruvate-driven respiration as well as perturbed metabolic profiles, and both defects could be restored by reexpression of MPC1. Labeling experiments using 13C-labeled glucose and glutamine demonstrated that MPC deficiency causes increased glutaminolysis and reduced contribution of glucose-derived pyruvate to the TCA cycle. Morphological defects were observed in mutant embryonic brains, together with major alterations of their metabolome including lactic acidosis, diminished TCA cycle intermediates, energy deficit and a perturbed balance of neurotransmitters. Strikingly, these changes were reversed when the pregnant dams were fed a ketogenic diet, which provides acetyl-CoA directly to the TCA cycle and bypasses the need for a functional MPC. This allowed the normal gestation and development of MPC deficient pups, even though they all died within a few minutes post-delivery. This study establishes the MPC as a key player in regulating the metabolic state necessary for embryonic development, neurotransmitter balance and post-natal survival.

The Pseudouridine Synthase RPUSD4 Is an Essential Component of Mitochondrial RNA Granules.

Mitochondrial gene expression is a fundamental process that is largely dependent on nuclear-encoded proteins. Several steps of mitochondrial RNA processing and maturation, including RNA post-transcriptional modification, appear to be spatially organized into distinct foci, which we have previously termed mitochondrial RNA granules (MRGs). Although an increasing number of proteins have been localized to MRGs, a comprehensive analysis of the proteome of these structures is still lacking. Here, we have applied a microscopy-based approach that has allowed us to identify novel components of the MRG proteome. Among these, we have focused our attention on RPUSD4, an uncharacterized mitochondrial putative pseudouridine synthase. We show that RPUSD4 depletion leads to a severe reduction of the steady-state level of the 16S mitochondrial (mt) rRNA with defects in the biogenesis of the mitoribosome large subunit and consequently in mitochondrial translation. We report that RPUSD4 binds 16S mt-rRNA, mt-tRNAMet, and mt-tRNAPhe, and we demonstrate that it is responsible for pseudouridylation of the latter. These data provide new insights into the relevance of RNA pseudouridylation in mitochondrial gene expression.

MPC1-like Is a Placental Mammal-specific Mitochondrial Pyruvate Carrier Subunit Expressed in Postmeiotic Male Germ Cells.

Selective transport of pyruvate across the inner mitochondrial membrane by the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC) is a fundamental step that couples cytosolic and mitochondrial metabolism. The recent molecular identification of the MPC complex has revealed two interacting subunits, MPC1 and MPC2. Although in yeast, an additional subunit, MPC3, can functionally replace MPC2, no alternative MPC subunits have been described in higher eukaryotes. Here, we report for the first time the existence of a novel MPC subunit termed MPC1-like (MPC1L), which is present uniquely in placental mammals. MPC1L shares high sequence, structural, and topological homology with MPC1. In addition, we provide several lines of evidence to show that MPC1L is functionally equivalent to MPC1: 1) when co-expressed with MPC2, it rescues pyruvate import in a MPC-deleted yeast strain; 2) in mammalian cells, it can associate with MPC2 to form a functional carrier as assessed by bioluminescence resonance energy transfer; 3) in MPC1 depleted mouse embryonic fibroblasts, MPC1L rescues the loss of pyruvate-driven respiration and stabilizes MPC2 expression; and 4) MPC1- and MPC1L-mediated pyruvate imports show similar efficiency. However, we show that MPC1L has a highly specific expression pattern and is localized almost exclusively in testis and more specifically in postmeiotic spermatids and sperm cells. This is in marked contrast to MPC1/MPC2, which are ubiquitously expressed throughout the organism. To date, the biological importance of this alternative MPC complex during spermatogenesis in placental mammals remains unknown. Nevertheless, these findings open up new avenues for investigating the structure-function relationship within the MPC complex.

Role of FAST Kinase Domains 3 (FASTKD3) in Post-transcriptional Regulation of Mitochondrial Gene Expression.

The Fas-activated serine/threonine kinase (FASTK) family of proteins has recently emerged as a central regulator of mitochondrial gene expression through the function of an unusual RNA-binding domain named RAP (for RNA-binding domain abundant in Apicomplexans), shared by all six members of the family. Here we describe the role of one of the less characterized members, FASTKD3, in mitochondrial RNA metabolism. First, we show that, in contrast to FASTK, FASTKD2, and FASTKD5, FASTKD3 does not localize in mitochondrial RNA granules, which are sites of processing and maturation of mtRNAs and ribosome biogenesis. Second, we generated FASTKD3 homozygous knock-out cell lines by homologous recombination and observed that the absence of FASTKD3 resulted in increased steady-state levels and half-lives of a subset of mature mitochondrial mRNAs: ND2, ND3, CYTB, COX2, and ATP8/6. No aberrant processing of RNA precursors was observed. Rescue experiments demonstrated that RAP domain is required for FASTKD3 function in mRNA stability. Besides, we describe that FASTKD3 is required for efficient COX1 mRNA translation without altering mRNA levels, which results in a decrease in the steady-state levels of COX1 protein. This finding is associated with reduced mitochondrial complex IV assembly and activity. Our observations suggest that the function of this family of proteins goes beyond RNA processing and ribosome assembly and includes RNA stability and translation regulation within mitochondria.

The mitochondrial pyruvate carrier in health and disease: To carry or not to carry?

Mitochondria play a key role in energy metabolism, hosting the machinery for oxidative phosphorylation, the most efficient cellular pathway for generating ATP. A major checkpoint in this process is the transport of pyruvate produced by cytosolic glycolysis into the mitochondrial matrix, which is accomplished by the recently identified mitochondrial pyruvate carrier (MPC). As the gatekeeper for pyruvate entry into mitochondria, the MPC is thought to be of fundamental importance in establishing the metabolic programming of a cell. This is especially relevant in the context of the aerobic glycolysis, also known as the Warburg effect, which is a hallmark in many types of cancer, and MPC loss of function promotes cancer growth. Moreover, mitochondrial pyruvate uptake is needed for efficient hepatic gluconeogenesis and the regulation of blood glucose levels. In this review we discuss recent advances in our knowledge of the MPC, and we argue that it may offer a promising target in diseases like cancer and type 2 diabetes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mitochondrial Channels edited by Pierre Sonveaux, Pierre Maechler and Jean-Claude Martinou.

A human mitochondrial poly(A) polymerase mutation reveals the complexities of post-transcriptional mitochondrial gene expression.

The p.N478D missense mutation in human mitochondrial poly(A) polymerase (mtPAP) has previously been implicated in a form of spastic ataxia with optic atrophy. In this study, we have investigated fibroblast cell lines established from family members. The homozygous mutation resulted in the loss of polyadenylation of all mitochondrial transcripts assessed; however, oligoadenylation was retained. Interestingly, this had differential effects on transcript stability that were dependent on the particular species of transcript. These changes were accompanied by a severe loss of oxidative phosphorylation complexes I and IV, and perturbation of de novo mitochondrial protein synthesis. Decreases in transcript polyadenylation and in respiratory chain complexes were effectively rescued by overexpression of wild-type mtPAP. Both mutated and wild-type mtPAP localized to the mitochondrial RNA-processing granules thereby eliminating mislocalization as a cause of defective polyadenylation. In vitro polyadenylation assays revealed severely compromised activity by the mutated protein, which generated only short oligo(A) extensions on RNA substrates, irrespective of RNA secondary structure. The addition of LRPPRC/SLIRP, a mitochondrial RNA-binding complex, enhanced activity of the wild-type mtPAP resulting in increased overall tail length. The LRPPRC/SLIRP effect although present was less marked with mutated mtPAP, independent of RNA secondary structure. We conclude that (i) the polymerase activity of mtPAP can be modulated by the presence of LRPPRC/SLIRP, (ii) N478D mtPAP mutation decreases polymerase activity and (iii) the alteration in poly(A) length is sufficient to cause dysregulation of post-transcriptional expression and the pathogenic lack of respiratory chain complexes.