Synthesis and Identification of decarbamoyloxySaxitoxins in Toxic Microalgae and their Reactions with the Oxygenase, SxtT, Reveal Saxitoxin Biosynthesis.

Saxitoxin (STX, 1) is a representative compound of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) that are produced by marine dinoflagellates and freshwater cyanobacteria. Although several pathways have been proposed for the biosynthesis of STX, the order of ring and side chain hydroxylation, and formation of the tricyclic skeleton have not been well established. In this study, 12,12-dideoxy-decarbamoyloxySTX (dd-doSTX, 2), the most reduced STX analogue having the tricyclic skeleton, and its analogues, 12ß-deoxy-doSTX (12ß-d-doSTX, 3), 12α-deoxy-doSTX (12α-d-doSTX, 4), and doSTX (5), were synthesized, and these compounds were screened in the toxic microalgae using high-resolution LCMSMS. dd-doSTX (2) and 12ß-d-doSTX (3) were identified in the PSTs-producing dinoflagellates (Alexandrium catenella, A. pacificum, and/or Gymnodinium catenatum) and in the cyanobacterium Dolichospermum circinale (TA04). doSTX (5), previously isolated from the dinoflagellate G. catenatum, was also identified in D. circinale (TA04). Furthermore, the conversion of 2 to 3, and 4 to 5, by SxtT with VanB, a reported Rieske oxygenase and its redox partner in STX biosynthesis, was confirmed. These results support that 2 is a possible biosynthetic precursor of STX, and that ring and side-chain hydroxylations proceed after cyclization.

Exploring Guanidinium Organocatalysts for Hypoiodite-Mediated Reactions.

This account describes our recent work on developing guanidinium hypoiodite- catalysts for oxidative carbon-nitrogen and carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions. These reactions proceeded smoothly using guanidinium hypoiodite generated in situ by treating 1,3,4,6,7-hexahydro-2H-pyrimido[1,2-a]pyrimidine hydroiodide salts with an oxidant. In this approach, the ionic interaction and hydrogen bonding ability of the guanidinium cations enable bond-forming reactions that have been difficult with conventional methods. Enantioselective oxidative carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction was also achieved by using a chiral guanidinium organocatalyst.

Guanidinium Hypoiodite-Catalyzed Intramolecular Oxidative Coupling Reaction of Oxindoles with ß-Dicarbonyls.

Spiro[indoline-3,4'-piperidine] is a fundamental motif present in various biologically active compounds. Here, we report an intramolecular oxidative coupling reaction of oxindoles with ß-dicarbonyls in the presence of a guanidinium hypoiodite catalyst, providing spiro-coupling products in moderate to excellent yields. Furthermore, a chiral hypoiodite catalyst derived from the chiral guanidinium organocatalyst is effective for the challenging asymmetric carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction, affording optically active spiro[indoline-3,4'-piperidines].

Approaches to Construction of the Medium-Sized Ring Structure in Zetekitoxin AB by Ring-Closing Metathesis.

Zetekitoxin AB (ZTX), a member of the saxitoxin (STX) family isolated from the Panamanian golden frog Atelopus zeteki, shows extremely potent NaV-inhibitory activity. Here, we investigate the synthesis of 12-membered ring structure with the C11 tertiary hydroxyl group in ZTX by means of the Mislow-Evans rearrangement reaction and subsequent ring-closing metathesis reaction. Although this approach did not provide access to the 12-membered macrocycle, we obtained a new STX analog with an 18-membered macrolactam structure as a synthetic mimic of ZTX.

Nontoxic Enantiomeric Reference Materials for Saxitoxins.

Saxitoxin (STX) is a potent neurotoxin that is biosynthesized by toxic dinoflagellates and accumulated in shellfish via the food chain. STX and its various analogues are now monitored in shellfish by the hygiene authorities in many countries with instrumental analytical methods, which require calibration with standards. Unfortunately, STX is registered as a chemical warfare agent in Schedule 1 of the Chemical Weapons Convention, and this has made it difficult to import calibration standards into some countries. We aimed to avoid violation of the Chemical Weapons Convention and facilitate analyses by preparing calibration standards based on unnatural nontoxic antipodal STXs (ent-STXs) with the same physicochemical properties as natural STXs. Our findings demonstrate that the nontoxic ent-STXs can be safely utilized as alternative reference materials of STXs in the routine monitoring program by the local authorities and consequently can lead to reduced usage of STX.

Destabilization of DNA and RNA G-quadruplex structures formed by GGA repeat due to N6-methyladenine modification.

N6-methyladenine (m6A) is the most abundant RNA modification in eukaryotic RNA. Further, m6A has been identified in the genomic DNA of both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. The G-quadruplex (G4) structure is a non-canonical nucleic acid structure formed by the stacking of G:G:G:G tetrads. In this study, we evaluated the effect of m6A modifications on G4 structures formed by GGA repeat oligonucleotides, d(GGA)8, d(GGA)4, and r(GGA)4. The d(GGA)8 forms an intramolecular tetrad:heptad:heptad:tetrad G4 structure, while d(GGA)4 forms a dimerized intermolecular tetrad:heptad:heptad:tetrad G4 structure. r(GGA)4 forms a dimerized intermolecular tetrad:hexad:hexad:tetrad G4 structure. Circular dichroism melting analysis demonstrated that (1) m6A modifications destabilized the G4 structure formed by d(GGA)8, (2) m6A modification at A3 disrupted the G4 structure formed by d(GGA)4, and (3) m6A modification at A3 destabilized the G4 structure formed by r(GGA)4. m6A modifications may be involved in controlling G4 structure formation to regulate biological functions.

Single-molecule displacement assay reveals strong binding of polyvalent dendrimer ligands to telomeric G-quadruplex.

Binding between a ligand and a receptor is a fundamental step in many natural or synthetic processes. In biosensing, a tight binding with a small dissociation constant (Kd) between the probe and analyte can lead to superior specificity and sensitivity. Owing to their capability of evaluating competitors, displacement assays have been used to estimate Kd at the ensemble average level. At the more sensitive single-molecule level, displacement assays are yet to be established. Here, we developed a single-molecule displacement assay (smDA) in an optical tweezers instrument and used this innovation to evaluate the binding of the L2H2-6OTD ligands to human telomeric DNA G-quadruplexes. After measuring Kd of linear and dendrimer L2H2-6OTD ligands, we found that dendrimer ligands have enhanced binding affinity to the G-quadruplexes due to their polyvalent geometry. This increased binding affinity enhanced inhibition of telomerase elongation on a telomere template in a Telomerase Repeated Amplification Protocol (TRAP). Our experiments demonstrate that the smDA approach can efficiently evaluate binding processes in chemical and biological processes.

Enantioselective Total Synthesis of Cepharatines via Bioinspired Ring Reconstruction.

We describe enantioselective total syntheses of cepharatines A-D, members of the hasubanan alkaloid family, which feature an unusual tetracyclic skeleton including an azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane motif. A key reaction is a regio-divergent oxidative phenolic coupling reaction that affords the tricyclic core structure of hasubanan with different substitution patterns on the A-ring, including the all-carbon quaternary stereogenic center at C13, in a single step. The characteristic tetracyclic azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane motif was constructed by means of a bioinspired cascade reaction involving the retro-aza-Michael reaction/hemiaminal formation.

Stereodivergent Synthesis of 1,3-Dienes via Protodeboronation of Homoallenylboronic Esters.

Vinylboronic esters and allylboronic esters are well known to afford olefins by protodeboronation, and therefore homoallenylboronic esters should be similarly available as precursors for 1,3-dienes, but this strategy has not been well explored due to the limited availability of homoallenylboronic esters. Here, we describe a versatile synthesis of homoallenylboronic esters via lithiation-borylation and subsequent 1,2-rearrangement. The resulting homoallenylboronic esters were successfully converted into Z- and E-1,3-dienes by protodeboronation using Bu4NF and B(C6F5)3/PhOH, respectively.

Synthesis of Deuterium-Labeled Vitamin D Metabolites as Internal Standards for LC-MS Analysis.

Blood levels of the vitamin D3 (D3) metabolites 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 (25(OH)D3), 24R,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) are recognized indicators for the diagnosis of bone metabolism-related diseases, D3 deficiency-related diseases, and hypercalcemia, and are generally measured by liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) using an isotope dilution method. However, other D3 metabolites, such as 20-hydroxyvitamin D3 and lactone D3, also show interesting biological activities and stable isotope-labeled derivatives are required for LC-MS/MS analysis of their concentrations in serum. Here, we describe a versatile synthesis of deuterium-labeled D3 metabolites using A-ring synthons containing three deuterium atoms. Deuterium-labeled 25(OH)D3 (2), 25(OH)D3-23,26-lactone (6), and 1,25(OH)2D3-23,26-lactone (7) were synthesized, and successfully applied as internal standards for the measurement of these compounds in pooled human serum. This is the first quantification of 1,25(OH)2D3-23,26-lactone (7) in human serum.

Enantioselective Total Synthesis of (+)-Stephadiamine through Bioinspired Aza-Benzilic Acid Type Rearrangement.

We report the first enantioselective total syntheses of the hasubanan alkaloid (-)-metaphanine and the norhasubanan alkaloid (+)-stephadiamine. Key features of these syntheses include diastereoselective oxidative phenolic coupling reaction and subsequent regioselective intramolecular aza-Michael reaction, which efficiently construct the hasubanan skeleton with the all-carbon quaternary stereogenic center at C13. Based on our hypothesis regarding the biosynthetic pathway of (+)-stephadiamine, we found that (-)-metaphanine is easily converted to (+)-stephadiamine via aza-benzilic acid type rearrangement reaction.

Chemical Synthesis of Side-Chain-Hydroxylated Vitamin D3 Derivatives and Their Metabolism by CYP27B1.

1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (abbreviated here as 1,25D3 ) is a hormonally active form of vitamin D3 (D3 ), and is produced from D3 by CYP27 A1-mediated hydroxylation at C25, followed by CYP27B1-mediated hydroxylation at C1. Further hydroxylation of 25D3 and 1,25D3 occurs at C23, C24 and C26 to generate corresponding metabolites, except for 1,25R,26D3 . Since the capability of CYP27B1 to hydroxylate C1 of side-chain-hydroxylated metabolites other than 23S,25D3 and 24R,25D3 has not been examined, we have here explored the role of CYP27B1 in the C1 hydroxylation of a series of side-chain-hydroxylated D3 derivatives. We found that CYP27B1 hydroxylates the R diastereomers of 24,25D3 and 25,26D3 more effectively than the S diastereomers, but shows almost no activity towards either diastereomer of 23,25D3 . This is the first report to show that CYP27B1 metabolizes 25,26D3 to the corresponding 1α-hydroxylated derivative, 1,25,26D3 . It will be interesting to examine the physiological relevance of this finding.

Vinylnaphthalene-bearing hexaoxazole as a fluorescence turn-on type G-quadruplex ligand.

Oxazole-type fluorophores show an increase of fluorescence intensity upon interaction with nucleic acids, and therefore can be used as tools for nucleic acid-sensing and fluorescence imaging. Here, we developed a novel stilbene-type fluorophore, MO-VN (1), consisting of a mono oxazole bearing a vinyl naphthalene moiety. This compound (1) was embedded in a trioxazole 2 and a cyclic hexaoxazole 3a. The fluorescence properties of 1, 2, and 3a were evaluated in the presence of various nucleic acid sequences. Compound 3 showed significant fluorescent enhancement upon interacting with G-quadruplex (G4) structure, which plays critical roles in various biological phenomena. Further structural development focusing on the vinyl naphthalene moiety of 3a afforded a turn-on type G4 ligand 3e that shows G4-specific fluorescence. Measurement of the fluorescence of 3e during titration of a telomeric DNA, telo24, with its C-rich complementary sequence, which unwinds the G4 structure, allowed us to monitor the dynamics of G4.

Selective alkylation of parallel G-quadruplex structure.

The selective alkylation of nucleic acids is important for a medicinal approach and biological study. We now report a novel selective alkylation of the parallel G-quadruplex structure using the conjugate of the macrocyclic hexaoxazole L2G2-6OTD-1M1PA and vinyl-quinazolinone-S(O)Me (6OTD-VQ-S(O)Me).

Quantifying the impact of small molecule ligands on G-quadruplex stability against Bloom helicase.

G-quadruplex (GQ) stabilizing small molecule (SM) ligands have been used to stabilize human telomeric GQ (hGQ) to inhibit telomerase activity, or non-telomeric GQs to manipulate gene expression at transcription or translation level. GQs are known to inhibit DNA replication unless destabilized by helicases, such as Bloom helicase (BLM). Even though the impact of SM ligands on thermal stability of GQs is commonly used to characterize their efficacy, how these ligands influence helicase-mediated GQ unfolding is not well understood. Three prominent SM ligands (an oxazole telomestatin derivative, pyridostatin, and PhenDC3), which thermally stabilize hGQ at different levels, were utilized in this study. How these ligands influence BLM-mediated hGQ unfolding was investigated using two independent single-molecule approaches. While the frequency of dynamic hGQ unfolding events was used as the metric in the first approach, the second approach was based on quantifying the cumulative unfolding activity as a function of time. All three SM ligands inhibited BLM activity at similar levels, 2-3 fold, in both approaches. Our observations suggest that the impact of SM ligands on GQ thermal stability is not an ideal predictor for their inhibition of helicase-mediated unfolding, which is physiologically more relevant.

Detection of CpG Methylation in G-Quadruplex Forming Sequences Using G-Quadruplex Ligands.

Genomic DNA methylation is involved in many diseases and is expected to be a specific biomarker for even the pre-symptomatic diagnosis of many diseases. Thus, a rapid and inexpensive detection method is required for disease diagnosis. We have previously reported that cytosine methylation in G-quadruplex (G4)-forming oligonucleotides develops different G4 topologies. In this study, we developed a method for detecting CpG methylation in G4-forming oligonucleotides based on the structural differences between methylated and unmethylated G4 DNAs. The differences in G4 topologies due to CpG methylation can be discriminated by G4 ligands. We performed a binding assay between methylated or unmethylated G4 DNAs and G4 ligands. The binding abilities of fluorescent G4 ligands to BCL-2, HRAS1, HRAS2, VEGF G4-forming sequences were examined by fluorescence-based microtiter plate assay. The differences in fluorescence intensities between methylated and unmethylated G4 DNAs were statistically significant. In addition to fluorescence detection, the binding of G4 ligand to DNA was detected by chemiluminescence. A significant difference was also detected in chemiluminescence intensity between methylated and unmethylated DNA. This is the first study on the detection of CpG methylation in G4 structures, focusing on structural changes using G4 ligands.

Topologies of G-quadruplex: Biological functions and regulation by ligands.

G-Quadruplex (G4) is one of the higher-order structures occurring in guanine-rich sequences of nucleic acids, and plays critical roles in biological processes. The G4-forming sequences can generate three kinds of topologies, i.e., parallel, anti-parallel, and hybrid, and these polymorphic structures have an important influence on G4-related biological functions. In this review, we highlight variety of structures generated by G4s containing various sequences and under diverse conditions. We also discuss the G4 ligands which induce specific topologies and/or conversion between different topologies.

Synthesis of C12-Keto Saxitoxin Derivatives with Unusual Inhibitory Activity Against Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels.

A novel series of C12-keto-type saxitoxin (STX) derivatives bearing an unusual nonhydrated form of the ketone at C12 has been synthesized, and their NaV -inhibitory activity has been evaluated in a cell-based assay as well as whole-cell patch-clamp recording. Among these compounds, 11-benzylidene STX (3 a) showed potent inhibitory activity against neuroblastoma Neuro 2A in both cell-based and electrophysiological analyses, with EC50 and IC50 values of 8.5 and 30.7 nm, respectively. Interestingly, the compound showed potent inhibitory activity against tetrodotoxin-resistant subtype of NaV 1.5, with an IC50 value of 94.1 nm. Derivatives 3 a-d and 3 f showed low recovery rates from NaV 1.2 subtype (ca 45-79 %) compared to natural dcSTX (2), strongly suggesting an irreversible mode of interaction. We propose an interaction model for the C12-keto derivatives with NaV in which the enone moiety in the STX derivatives 3 works as Michael acceptor for the carboxylate of Asp1717 .

Synthesis of Hydrocarbazole Derivatives by Oxidative Dearomative Cyclization of Diarylamines Using a Hypervalent Iodine Reagent.

Hydrocarbazole derivatives bearing a quaternary stereogenic center at C4a were synthesized by means of intramolecular oxidative dearomatization of diarylamines using hypervalent iodine in moderate to good yields. The hydrocarbazole bearing a cyclohexadienone moiety was further converted into the tetracyclic skeletons of Aspidosperma and akuammiline-type alkaloids via regioselective aza-Michael reaction at C4 and at C9a, respectively.

Enantioselective Epoxidation of 2,3-Disubstituted Naphthoquinones by a Side Chain Truncated Guanidine-Urea Bifunctional Organocatalyst.

An organocatalytic enantioselective epoxidation of 2,3-disubstituted naphthoquinones with tert-butyl hydroperoxide as an oxidant was developed using a guanidine-urea bifunctional catalyst lacking C2 symmetry, which was designed based upon the insights obtained from the DFT calculation model for our previous C2 symmetric catalyst. The present organocatalytic reaction provides access to a variety of optically active naphthoquinone epoxides bearing aryl and methyl substituents at C2 and C3 in high yields with high enantioselectivities (up to 97:3 er).