HDAC19 recruits ERF4 to the MYB5a promoter and diminishes anthocyanin accumulation during grape ripening.

DNA acetylation alters the expression of responsive genes during plant development. In grapes (Vitis vinifera), however, little is known about this regulatory mechanism. In the present study, 'Kyoho' grapes treated with trichostatin A (TSA, a deacetylase inhibitor) were used for transcriptome sequencing and quantitative proteomics analysis. We observed that acetylation was associated with anthocyanin accumulation and gene expression. Acetylation positively regulated phenylalanine metabolism and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. Using omics analysis, we detected an increase in the levels of the AP2/EREBP transcription factor family after TSA treatment, indicating its association with acetylation-deacetylation dynamics in grapes. Furthermore, ethylene response factor 4 (ERF4) physically interacted with VvHDAC19, a histone deacetylase, which synergistically reduced the expression of target genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis owing to the binding of VvERF4 to the GCC-box cis-regulatory element in the VvMYB5a promoter. VvHDAC19 and VvERF4 also controlled anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation by regulating acetylation levels of histones H3 and H4. Therefore, alterations in histone modification can significantly regulate the expression of genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis and affect grape ripening.

Assessment of 'Cabernet Sauvignon' Grape Quality Half-Véraison to Maturity for Grapevines Grown in Different Regions.

Grapes are widely cultivated around the world and their quality has distinct regional characteristics. In this study, the qualitative characteristics of the 'Cabernet Sauvignon' grape variety in seven regions, from half-véraison to maturity, were analyzed comprehensively at physiological and transcriptional levels. The results indicated that the quality traits of 'Cabernet Sauvignon' grapes in different regions were significantly different with obvious regionality. Total phenols, anthocyanins, and titratable acids were the main factors of the regionality of berry quality, which were very sensitive to changes in the environment. It should be noted that the changes in titrating acids and total anthocyanin of berries vary greatly from half-véraison to maturity between regions. Moreover, the transcriptional analysis showed that the co-expressed genes between regions characterized the core transcriptome of berry development, while the unique genes of each region reflected the regionality of berries. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between half-véraison and maturity can be used to demonstrate that the environment of the regions could promote or inhibit gene expression. The functional enrichment suggested that these DEGs help to understand the interpretation of the plasticity of the quality composition of grapes according to the environment. Taken together, the information generated by this study could contribute to the development of viticultural practices aimed at making better use of native varieties for the development of wines with regional characteristics.

Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of magnesium transporter gene family in grape (Vitis vinifera).

BACKGROUND: Magnesium ion is one of the essential mineral elements for plant growth and development, which participates in a variety of physiological and biochemical processes. Since there is no report on the research of magnesium ion transporter in grape, the study of the structure and function of magnesium ion transporters (MGT) is helpful to understand the dynamic balance mechanism of intracellular magnesium ions and their inter- or intra-cellular activities. RESULT: In this study, we identified the members of MGT protein family in grape and performed the phylogenetic and expression analysis. We have identified nine VvMGT genes in grape genome, which are distributed on eight different chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis showed that MGT family members of grapes were divided into five subfamilies and had obvious homology with Arabidopsis, maize, and pear. Based on transcriptome data from the web databases, we analyzed the expression patterns of VvMGTs at different development stages and in response to abiotic stresses including waterlogging, drought, salinity, and copper. Using qRT-PCR method, we tested the expression of grape VvMGTs under magnesium and aluminum treatments and found significant changes in VvMGTs expression. In addition, four of the MGT proteins in grape were located in the nucleus. CONCLUSION: Overall, in this study we investigated the structural characteristics, evolution pattern, and expression analysis of VvMGTs in depth, which laid the foundation for further revealing the function of VvMGT genes in grape.

Investigation of pharmacokinetic and clinical outcomes of various meropenem regimens in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia and augmented renal clearance.

INTRODUCTION: Augmented renal clearance (ARC) defined as creatinine clearance (Clcr) above 130 mL/min/1.73m2 may lead to suboptimal antibacterial treatment. The aim of this study was to determine a strategy for meropenem administration to achieve both pharmacodynamic-pharmacokinetic (PK-PD) target (50%fT > MIC) and better clinical outcomes in patients with VAP and ARC. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this randomized clinical trial, patients with VAP and high risk for ARC were recruited. An 8-h urine collection was performed on the 1st, 3rd, and 5th days of study to measure Clcr. Included patients were divided into three groups: (1) 1 g meropenem, 3-h infusion, (2) 2 g meropenem, 3-h infusion, (3) 1 g meropenem, 6-h infusion. On the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th days of treatment, peak and trough blood samples were collected to undergo HPLC assay. MICs were assessed using microdilution method. Patients were also clinically monitored for 14 days. RESULTS: Forty-five patients were included. Group 3 showed significanty higher rate of patients achieving fT > MIC > 50% (100% for group 3 versus 40% for group 2 and 13% for group 1; p = 0.0001). Mean fT > MIC% was significantly higher in group 3 (78.77 ± 5.87 for group 3 versus 49.6 ± 7.38 for group 2 and 43.2 ± 7.98 for group 1; p = 0.0001). Statistical analysis showed no significant differences among groups regarding clinical improvement. CONCLUSION: According to the findings of this trial, prolonged meropenem infusion is an appropriate strategy compared to dose elevation among ARC patients.

Identification and Characterization of AUXIN Response Factor Gene Family Reveals Their Regulatory Network to Respond the Multi-Hormones Crosstalk during GA-Induced Grape Parthenocarpic Berry.

Exogenous gibberellin (GA) was widely used to improve berry quality through inducing parthenocarpic seedless berries in grapes. We revealed that auxin response factors (ARFs), the key transcription factors in response to auxin, might respond to GA involving modulation of grape parthenocarpy. However, the underlying molecular mechanism in this process remains yet unclear. Here, a total of 19 VvARF members were identified in the ovaries during GA-induced grapes' parthenocarpy. Interestingly, almost all members were GA-responsive factors, of which 9 could be classified in plant hormone signal transduction (KO04075) and involved in the tryptophan metabolic pathway (K14486). Moreover, VvARFs were predicted to have 310 interacted proteins involved in 19 KEGG pathways. Of them, 32 interacted proteins participated in the KO04075 pathway, including auxin (IAA), salicylic acid (SA), abscisic acid (ABA), cytokinin (CTK), and ethylene signaling pathways by responding to GA-mediated multi-hormone crosstalk. Further analysis demonstrated that VvARF4-2 might be the major factor in the modulation of GA-induced parthenocarpy via the crosstalk of IAA, CTK, SA, and ethylene signaling, followed by VvARF6-1 and VvARF9 involved in SA and ABA signaling pathways, respectively. Finally, we developed a VvARFs-mediated regulatory network by responding to GA-mediated multi-hormone crosstalk during grape parthenocarpy. Collectively, our findings provided novel insights into the regulatory network of VvARFs in GA-guided multi-hormone signaling to modulate grape parthenocarpy, which has great implications for the molecular breeding of high quality seedless grape berries.

miR3633a-GA3ox2 Module Conducts Grape Seed-Embryo Abortion in Response to Gibberellin.

Seedlessness is one of the important quality and economic traits favored by grapevine consumers, which are mainly affected by phytohormones, especially gibberellin (GA). GA is widely utilized in seedless berry production and could effectively induce grape seed embryo abortion. However, the molecular mechanism underlying this process, like the role of RNA silencing in the biosynthesis pathway of GA remains elusive. Here, Gibberellin 3-ß dioxygenase2 (GA3ox2) as the last key enzyme in GA biosynthesis was predicated as a potential target gene for miR3633a, and two of them were identified as a GA response in grape berries. We also analyzed the promoter regions of genes encoding GA biosynthesis and found the hormone-responsive elements to regulate grape growth and development. The cleavage interaction between VvmiR3633a and VvGA3ox2 was validated by RLM-RACE and the transient co-transformation technique in tobacco in vivo. Interestingly, during GA-induced grape seed embryo abortion, exogenous GA promoted the expression of VvmiR3633a, thereby mainly repressing the level of VvGA3ox2 in seed embryos. We also observed a negative correlation between down-regulated VvGA20ox2/VvGA3ox2 and up-regulated VvGA2ox3/VvGA2ox1, of which GA inactivation was greater than GA synthesis, inhibited active GA content, accompanied by the reduction of VvSOD and VvCAT expression levels and enzymatic activities. These series of changes might be the main causes of grape seed embryo abortion. In conclusion, we have preliminarily drawn a schematic mode of GA-mediated VvmiR3633a and related genes regulatory network during grape seed abortion induced by exogenous GA. Our findings provide novel insights into the GA-responsive roles of the VvmiR3633a-VvGA3ox2 module in the modulation of grape seed-embryo abortion, which has implications for the molecular breeding of high-quality seedless grape berries.

"The PLCP gene family of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): characterization and differential expression in response to Plasmopara Viticola".

BACKGROUND: Papain-like cysteine proteases (PLCPs), a large group of cysteine proteases, are structurally related to papain. The members belonging to PLCPs family contribute to plant immunity, senescence, and defense responses in plants. The PLCP gene family has been identified in Arabidopsis, rice, soybean, and cotton. However, no systematic analysis of PLCP genes has been undertaken in grapevine. Since Plasmopara viticola as a destructive pathogen could affect immunity of grapes in the field, we considered that the members belonged to PLCPs family could play a crucial role in defensive mechanisms or programmed cell death. We aimed to evaluate the role of PLCPs in 2 different varieties of grapevines and compared the changes of their expressions with the transcriptional data in response to P. viticola. RESULTS: In this study, 23 grapevine PLCP (VvPLCP) genes were identified by comprehensive bioinformatics analysis. Subsequently, the chromosomal localizations, gene structure, conserved domains, phylogenetic relationship, gene duplication, and cis-acting elements were analyzed. Numerous cis-acting elements related to plant development, hormone, and stress responses were identified in the promoter of the VvPLCP genes. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the VvPLCP genes into nine subgroups. The transcription of VvPLCP in different inoculation time points and varieties indicated that VvPLCP may have vital functions in grapevine defense against Plasmopara viticola. According to transcriptome data and qPCR analysis, we observed the increasing expression levels of VvRD21-1 at 72 h after inoculation in resistant variety, inferring that it was related to grape downy mildew resistance. Meanwhile, 3 genes including VvXBCP1, VvSAG12-1, and VvALP1 showed higher expression at 24 h after pathogen inoculation in the susceptible variety and might be related to the downy mildew phenotype. We nominated these four genes to function during hypersensitive response (HR) process, inferring that these genes could be associated with downy mildew resistance in grapes. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide the reference for functional studies of PLCP gene family, and highlight its functions in grapevine defense against P. viticola. The results help us to better understand the complexity of the PLCP gene family in plant immunity and provide valuable information for future functional characterization of specific genes in grapevine.

Demethylation alters transcriptome profiling of buds and leaves in 'Kyoho' grape.

BACKGROUND: Grape buds and leaves are directly associated with the physiology and metabolic activities of the plant, which is monitored by epigenetic modifications induced by environment and endogenous factors. Methylation is one of the epigenetic regulators that could be involved in DNA levels and affect gene expression in response to stimuli. Therefore, changes of gene expression profile in leaves and bud through inhibitors of DNA methylation provide a deep understanding of epigenetic effects in regulatory networks. RESULTS: In this study, we carried out a transcriptome analysis of 'Kyoho' buds and leaves under 5-azacytidine (5-azaC) exposure and screened a large number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). GO and KEGG annotations showed that they are mainly involved in photosynthesis, flavonoid synthesis, glutathione metabolism, and other metabolic processes. Functional enrichment analysis also provided a holistic perspective on the transcriptome profile when 5-azaC bound to methyltransferase and induced demethylation. Enrichment analysis of transcription factors (TFs) also showed that the MYB, C2H2, and bHLH families are involved in the regulation of responsive genes under epigenetic changes. Furthermore, hormone-related genes have also undergone significant changes, especially gibberellin (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA)-related genes that responded to bud germination. We also used protein-protein interaction network to determine hub proteins in response to demethylation. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide new insights into the establishment of molecular regulatory networks according to how methylation as an epigenetic modification alters transcriptome patterns in bud and leaves of grape.

Upstream of gene expression: what is the role of microtubules in cold signalling?

Cold stress is a major abiotic stress, restricting plant growth and development. Therefore, gene expression in response to cold stress and during cold acclimation has been studied intensively, including the ICE-CBF-COR pathway, as well as the modulation of this cascade by secondary messengers, for instance mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades. In contrast, the early events of cold perception and cold adaption have received far less attention. This is partially due to the fact that cold is a physical signal, which requires the conceptual framework to be adjusted. In this review, we address the role of microtubules in cold sensing, and propose a model whereby microtubules, while not being part of signalling itself, act as modulators of cold sensitivity. The purpose of this model is to derive implications for future experiments that will help to provide a more complete understanding of cold adaptation.

Chitinase family genes in grape differentially expressed in a manner specific to fruit species in response to Botrytis cinerea.

Chitinases (Chi), an important resistance-related protein, act against fungal pathogens by catalyzing the fungal cell wall, whereas are involved in different biological pathways in grape. In this study, we found 42 Chi family genes in Vitis vinifera L. (VvChis) and evaluated their expression levels after Botrytis infection, stress hormones like ethylene (ETH) and methyl-jasmonate (MeJA), and abiotic stresses like salinity and temperature changes in ripened fruits. VvChis were categorized into five groups including A, B, C, D, and E belonged to glycoside hydrolase family 18 and 19 (GH18 and GH19) according to genes structure, which expression analysis showed distinct temporal and spatial expression patterns changed in different tissues and various development stages. Different responsive elements to biotic and abiotic stresses were determined in the promoter regions of VvChis, specially elicitor-responsive element that was conserved among all VvChis genes. The expression levels of VvChis in groups A, B, and E increased after Botrytis cinerea infection in leaves and berries. Meanwhile, VvChis in glycoside hydrolase family 18 (GH18) were up-regulated under MeJA and ETH treatment, although the induction of VvChis by low temperature was more significant than high temperature. The expression of VvChis was also positively correlated with the concentration of NaCl treatment. Furthermore, differential gene-overexpression of VvChi5, VvChi17, VvChi22, VvChi26, and VvChi31 in strawberry and tomato fruits demonstrated the involvement of various isoforms in resistance to Botrytis infection through antioxidant system and lignin accumulation, which led to a reduction of damage. Among different isoforms of VvChis, we confirmed the interaction of Chi17 with Metallothionein (MTL) as oxidative stress protection, which suggests VvChis can modulate oxidative stress during postharvest storage in ripened fruits.

Time-dependent behavior of phenylpropanoid pathway in response to methyl jasmonate in Scrophularia striata cell cultures.

KEY MESSAGE: MeJA triggers a time-dependent behavior of the phenylpropanoid compounds. Plant cells produce a large number of metabolites in response to environmental factors. The cellular responses to environmental changes are orchestrated by signaling molecules, such as methyl jasmonate (MeJA). To understand how the MeJA changes the behavior of amino acids, carbohydrates, and phenylpropanoid compounds such as phenolic acids, phenylethanoid-glycosides, and flavonoids in Scrophularia striata cells; we monitored the metabolic responses for different times of exposure. In this study, we performed a time course analysis of metabolites and enzymes in S. striata cells exposed to MeJA (100 µM) and evaluated the metabolic flux towards carbon-rich secondary metabolites production. Moreover, we calculated the biosynthetic energy cost for free amino acids. Our results indicated that MeJA accelerates the sucrose degradation and directs the metabolic fluxes towards a pool of flavonoids and phenylethanoid glycosides through a change in enzyme behavior in the entry point and center of the phenylpropanoid pathway. MeJA also decreased and then raised the amino acid biosynthesis cost in S. striata cells in a time-dependent manner, indicating the cells evolve to utilize amino acids more economically by reducing cell growth. Finally, we classified the marked changes in the metabolites level and enzyme activities into three groups including early-, late-, and oscillatory-response groups to MeJA and summarized our findings as a model depicting pathway interactions during MeJA elicitation. Determination of metabolic levels in response to MeJA suggests that the changes in metabolic responses are time-dependent.

Profiling of acidic (amino and phenolic acids) and phenylpropanoids production in response to methyl jasmonate-induced oxidative stress in Scrophularia striata suspension cells.

MAIN CONCLUSION: A metabolic profiling including calculation of energy cost of amino acids biosynthesis in cultured cells of Scrophularia striata showed that methyl jasmonate-inducible oxidative stress elicited secondary metabolites formation derived from phenylalanine and tyrosine and increased energy cost for these amino acids biosynthesis. Understanding of the metabolic pathways in cell culture of Scrophularia striata, an aromatic plant species, facilitates means of production of pharmaceutical metabolites under oxidative stress. In this study, we evaluated the effects of MeJA on the S. striata metabolic pathway and the responses to oxidative stress. Exposure to methyl jasmonate (MeJA) affects plant growth, effectively induces production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inserts oxidative stress at the cellular level which results in alteration of primary metabolites and production of phenylepropanoid compounds. Cells treated with MeJA indicated increase in the activities of three antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPx) as well as intracellular H2O2 and MDA contents compared with mock-treated cells. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based metabolome analysis revealed dynamic metabolic changes in oxidatively stressed S. striata cells, e.g., general phenylpropanoid pathway, phenylethanoid-glycosides, lignans, and increased energy cost of biosynthesis and accumulation of amino acids. Furthermore, principal component analysis (PCA)-derived score plots demonstrated that MeJA affects cellular metabolism in S. striata cells and significantly alters metabolite composition under MeJA-inducible oxidative stress. These observations suggest that MeJA-elicited cell suspension cultures of S. striata balanced the production of primary and secondary metabolites in coordination with ROS-scavenging system.

Receptor-like kinase ERECTA negatively regulates anthocyanin accumulation in grape.

Receptor-like kinase (ERECTA, ER) is essential for mediating growth, development, and stress response signaling pathway in plants. In this study, we investigated the effect of VvER on anthocyanin synthesis as a regulatory factor in transgenic grape callus in response to chilling stress. Results showed that overexpression of VvER reduced the expression of transcription factors VvMYBA1, VvMYB5b, VvMYC2, and VvWDR1, as well as the structural genes VvCHS, VvCHI, VvDFR, VvLDOX, and VvUFGT, and inhibited the anthocyanins synthesis of grape callus at 25℃. VvER reduced proline content and antioxidant enzymes activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), and inhibited the expression of anthocyanin synthesis genes to reduce the cold resistance of grape callus. In transgenic Arabidopsis, overexpression of VvER promoted the elongation of Arabidopsis rosettes and sprigs. Under strong light treatment, VvER inhibited the accumulation of anthocyanins in Arabidopsis; Transient expression in strawberry fruit showed that VvER inhibited the synthesis of anthocyanin in strawberry fruit by inhibiting the expression of FaCHI, FaCHS, FaDFR and FaUFGT under low temperature treatment at 10°C, but not under the normal temperature of 25℃. Using Yeast two-hybrid, we found that VvER interacted with transcription factor proteins including VvMYBA1, VvMYB5b and VvWDR1. Furthermore, VvER led to the repression of VvUFGT promoter activity and decreased the anthocyanin biosynthesis genes expression by downregulation MBW complex activity. Totally, VvER could inhibit anthocyanin biosynthesis and involve in the grape plant susceptible to cold stress for grape cultivation in northern China.

Integrated anatomical structure, physiological, and transcriptomic analyses to identify differential cold tolerance responses of Ziziphus jujuba mill. 'Yueguang' and its autotetraploid 'Hongguang'.

Cold stress is a limiting stress factor that limits plant distribution and development; however, polyploid plants have specific characteristics such as higher resistance to abiotic stress, especially cold stress, that allow them to overcome this challenge. The cultivated cultivar Ziziphus jujuba Mill. 'Yueguang' (YG) and its autotetraploid counterpart 'Hongguang' (HG) exhibit differential cold tolerance. However, the underlying molecular mechanism and methods to enhance their cold tolerance remain unknown. Anatomical structure and physiological analysis indicated YG had a higher wood bark ratio, and xylem ratio under cold treatment compared to HG. However, the half-lethal temperature (LT50), cortex ratio, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were significantly decreased in YG than HG, which indicated YG was cold tolerant than HG. Transcriptome analysis showed that 2084, 1725, 2888, and 2934 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in HC vs YC, H20 vs Y20, Y20 vs YC, and H20 vs HC treatment, respectively. Meanwhile, KEGG enrichment analysis of DEGs showed that several metabolic pathways, primarily plant hormone signal transduction and the MAPK signaling pathway, were involved in the differential regulation of cold tolerance between YG and HG. Furthermore, exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) and brassinolide (BR) treatments could improve their cold tolerance through increased SOD and POD activities, decreased relative electrical conductivity, and MDA content. All of these findings suggested that plant hormone signal transduction, particularly ABA and BR, might have an important role in the regulation of differential cold tolerance between YG and HG, laying the foundation for further improving cold tolerance in jujube and examining the molecular mechanisms underlying differences in cold tolerance among different ploidy cultivars.

Growth or survival: What is the role of calmodulin-like proteins in plant?

Calcium signalling, including pulse, amplitude, and duration, is essential for plant development and response to various stimuli. However, the calcium signalling should be decoded and translated by calcium sensors. In plants, three classes of calcium-binding proteins have been identified as calcium sensors, including calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK), calcineurin B-like protein (CBL), and calmodulin (CaM). Calmodulin-like proteins (CMLs), which have several EF-hands, also serve as specific calcium sensors and can sense, bind, and interpret the calcium signal during the plant's growth and defense decision-making processes. In recent decades, the function of CMLs in plant development and response to various stimuli has been systematically reviewed, shedding light on the molecular mechanism of plant CML-mediated networks in calcium signal transduction. Here, by providing an overview of CML expression and biological function in plants, we demonstrate that growth-defense trade-offs occur during calcium sensing, an aspect that has not been well studied in recent years.

Transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling of strawberry during postharvest cooling and heat storage.

Temperature is one of the most important factors regarding fruit postharvest, however its effects in the strawberry fruits quality in postharvest remains to be evaluated. In this study, the effects of cold and heat storage temperature on fruit quality of 'Benihoppe' strawberry were performed. The results showed that different temperatures could affect the metabolism of hormone, anthocyanin, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and transcription level of responsive factors. The synthesis of terpenoids, amino acids, and phenylpropanoids in strawberries were also changed under different temperatures, which finally changed the quality characteristics of the fruit. We found HSF20 (YZ1)-overexpressed fruits were sensitive to cold and heat conditions but CBF/NF-Y (YZ9)-overexpressed fruits promoted coloring under cold treatment. This study clarified the effect of postharvest cooling and heat treatments on quality and transcriptional mechanism of strawberries fruits. Moreover, these results provided an experimental basis for further research on improving the quality of strawberry berries during postharvest periods.

Transcriptional Profiling of Resistant and Susceptible Cultivars of Grapevine (Vitis L.) Reveals Hypersensitive Responses to Plasmopara viticola.

Grapevine downy mildew is the most serious disease of grapevine cultivars that affects the rate of resistance/susceptibility to Plasmopara viticola. In this study, we used the susceptible cultivar "Zitian Seedless" and the resistant cultivar "Kober 5BB" as materials to determine the transcriptome differences and phenotypes of the leaves after inoculation with downy mildew. The differences in microstructures and molecular levels were compared and analyzed. Fluorescence staining and microscopic observations confirmed that hypersensitive cell death occurred around the stomata in "Kober 5BB" infected by downy mildew zoospores. Meanwhile, transcriptomic profiling indicated that there were 11,713 and 6,997 gene expression differences between the resistant and susceptible cultivars at 72 h after inoculation when compared to control (0 h), respectively. The differentially expressed genes of the two cultivars are significantly enriched in different pathways, including response to plant-pathogen interaction, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, plant hormone signal transduction, phenylpropanoid, and flavonoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, the results of functional enrichment analysis showed that H2O2 metabolism, cell death, reactive oxygen response, and carbohydrate metabolism are also involved in the defense response of "Kober 5BB," wherein a total of 322 key genes have been identified. The protein interaction network showed that metacaspases (MCAs), vacuolar processing enzymes (VPEs), and Papain-like cysteine proteases (PLCPs) play an important role in the execution of hypersensitive responses (HR). In conclusion, we demonstrated that HR cell death is the key strategy in the process of grape defense against downy mildew, which may be mediated or activated by Caspase-like proteases.

DNA and Histone Methylation Regulates Different Types of Fruit Ripening by Transcriptome and Proteome Analyses.

Methylation affects different aspects of genetic material stability, gene expression regulation, and histone modification. The previous reports depicted that DNA and histone methylation regulates plant growth and development. In this study, we evaluated the effects of DNA and histone methylation on 'Hongjia' strawberry and 'Lichun' tomato. We investigated the transient transformation system for arginine methyltransferase (FvPRMT1.5) overexpression and interference and assessed the phenotypic appearance and mRNA and protein expression levels. Results depicted that changes in methylation levels caused inhibition of carotenoids and anthocyanins. Furthermore, the profiling of aroma components was altered in response to 5-azacytidine. DNA hypomethylation induced the expression levels of genes involved in photosynthesis, flavonoid biosynthesis, and hormone signal transduction pathways, while the expression levels of related proteins showed a downward trend. Overall, we proposed a model that reveals the possible regulatory effects of DNA and histone methylation during fruit ripening.

Review: Microtubules monitor calcium and reactive oxygen species signatures in signal transduction.

Signal transductions require calcium (Ca2+) or reactive oxygen species (ROS) signatures, which act as chemical and electrical signals in response to various biotic and abiotic stresses. Calcium as an ion or second messenger affects the membrane potential and microtubules (MTs) dynamicity, while MTs can modulate auto-propagating waves of calcium and ROS signatures in collaboration with ion channels depending on the stimulus type. Thus, in the current review, we highlight advances in research focused on the relationship between dynamic MTs and calcium and ROS signatures in short-distance transmission. The challenges of Ca2+-MTs-ROS crosstalk in cold sensing are addressed, which could suggest the prioritization of ROS or Ca2+ in signalling.