Combined throat/nasal swab sampling for SARS-CoV-2 is equivalent to nasopharyngeal sampling.

PURPOSE: PCR on a nasopharyngeal sample is the reference method for the detection of SARS-nCoV-2. However, combined throat/nasal sampling as a testing method has several advantages. We compared the combined throat/nasal sampling with nasopharyngeal sampling for detection of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare workers suspected of COVID-19. METHODS: In 107 healthcare workers with symptoms of COVID-19, combined throat/nasal sampling and nasopharyngeal sampling was performed. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 was performed by RT-PCR targeting. RESULTS: A total of 80 healthcare workers (74.8%) tested negative with both sampling methods, and 25 healthcare workers (23.4%) tested positive with both sampling methods. There were two discrepant results with positive PCR in combined throat/nasal swabs and negative PCR in nasopharyngeal swabs (1.9%). The κ index for concordance between the 2 sampling methods was high (0.95). The median cycle threshold (Ct) value of PCR on nasopharyngeal samples was significantly lower than the Ct value of PCR on combined throat/nasal samples (19 (IQR 17-20) versus 21 (IQR 18-29) cycles, p value 0.01). CONCLUSION: Combined throat/nasal swabs yield a similar sensitivity to detect SARS-CoV-2 as nasopharyngeal swabs and are a good alternative sampling method, despite a lower Ct value for the nasopharyngeal samples.

Prospective comparison of two enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot assays for the diagnosis of Lyme neuroborreliosis.

Commercial cellular tests are used to diagnose Lyme borreliosis (LB), but studies on their clinical validation are lacking. This study evaluated the utility of an in-house and a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) assay for the diagnosis of Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB). Prospectively, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from patients and controls and analysed using an in-house Borrelia ELISpot assay and the commercial LymeSpot assay. B. burgdorferi B31 whole cell lysate and a mixture of outer surface proteins were used to stimulate the PBMCs and the numbers of interferon-gamma-secreting T cells were measured. Results were evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Eighteen active and 12 treated LNB patients, 10 healthy individuals treated for an early (mostly cutaneous) manifestation of LB in the past and 47 untreated healthy individuals were included. Both assays showed a poor diagnostic performance with sensitivities, specificities, positive and negative predictive values ranging from 44.4-66.7%, 42.0-72.5%, 21.8-33.3% and 80.5-87.0%, respectively. The LymeSpot assay performed equally poorly when the calculation method of the manufacturer was used. Both the in-house and the LymeSpot assay are unable to diagnose active LNB or to monitor antibiotic treatment success.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Spot Assay Measuring Borrelia burgdorferi B31-Specific Interferon Gamma-Secreting T Cells Cannot Discriminate Active Lyme Neuroborreliosis from Past Lyme Borreliosis: a Prospective Study in the Netherlands.

Two-tier serology testing is most frequently used for the diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis (LB); however, a positive result is no proof of active disease. To establish a diagnosis of active LB, better diagnostics are needed. Tests investigating the cellular immune system are available, but studies evaluating the utility of these tests on well-defined patient populations are lacking. Therefore, we investigated the utility of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) assay to diagnose active Lyme neuroborreliosis. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of various study groups were stimulated by using Borrelia burgdorferi strain B31 and various recombinant antigens, and subsequently, the number of Borrelia-specific interferon gamma (IFN-γ)-secreting T cells was measured. We included 33 active and 37 treated Lyme neuroborreliosis patients, 28 healthy individuals treated for an early manifestation of LB in the past, and 145 untreated healthy individuals. The median numbers of B. burgdorferi B31-specific IFN-γ-secreting T cells/2.5 × 105 PBMCs did not differ between active Lyme neuroborreliosis patients (6.0; interquartile range [IQR], 0.5 to 14.0), treated Lyme neuroborreliosis patients (4.5; IQR, 2.0 to 18.6), and treated healthy individuals (7.4; IQR, 2.3 to 14.9) (P = 1.000); however, the median number of B. burgdorferi B31-specific IFN-γ-secreting T cells/2.5 × 105 PBMCs among untreated healthy individuals was lower (2.0; IQR, 0.5 to 3.9) (P ≤ 0.016). We conclude that the Borrelia ELISpot assay, measuring the number of B. burgdorferi B31-specific IFN-γ-secreting T cells/2.5 × 105 PBMCs, correlates with exposure to the Borrelia bacterium but cannot be used for the diagnosis of active Lyme neuroborreliosis.

Disagreement between the results from three commercial tests for the detection of Borrelia-specific serum antibodies in the Netherlands associated with antibiotic treatment for Lyme borreliosis: a retrospective study.

The diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis is challenging because of the often non-specific symptoms and persisting antibodies after infection. We investigated the diagnostic characteristics of two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and an immunoblot for the detection of Borrelia-specific serum antibodies using different test strategies in individuals with and without antibiotic treatment for Lyme borreliosis. This retrospective study included healthy individuals, patients with active Lyme neuroborreliosis and patients treated for Lyme neuroborreliosis. Two ELISAs were compared: the C6 ELISA and the SERION ELISA. Equivocal and positive results were confirmed by immunoblot. We included 174 healthy individuals, of whom 27 (15.5%) were treated for Lyme borreliosis in the past, 36 patients were treated for Lyme neuroborreliosis and 27 patients had active Lyme neuroborreliosis. All the active Lyme neuroborreliosis patients were reactive in both ELISAs (100% sensitivity); less reactivity was seen in the other three groups (range 17.7% to 69.4%). The concordance between the ELISA results was high in active Lyme neuroborreliosis patients (26/27; 96.3%) and healthy individuals (131/147; 89.1%), but lower in treated healthy individuals (18/27; 66.7%) and treated Lyme neuroborreliosis patients (18/36; 50.0%) (p ≤ 0.005). This study showed that antibiotic treatment against Lyme borreliosis was strongly associated with discordant ELISA and test strategy results (odds ratio: 10.52; p < 0.001 and 9.98; p = 0.014, respectively) suggesting antibiotic treatment influences the pace at which the various antibodies directed to the different antigens used in both ELISAs wane. Among treated neuroborreliosis patients, the SERION ELISA stayed positive for a longer period after infection compared to the C6 ELISA. This should be taken into consideration when requesting and/or interpreting Lyme serology.

Integrated surveillance of human respiratory viruses in addition to SARS-CoV-2 in a public testing facility in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: SARS-CoV-2 prevention measures impact the circulation of other respiratory viruses. Surveillance in the network of general practitioners is hampered by widespread testing for SARS-CoV-2 in public testing facilities. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate integrated community surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory viruses and describe epidemiological trends. STUDY DESIGN: Respiratory surveillance was set up within an existing SARS-CoV-2 public testing facility. Community-dwelling (a)symptomatic persons provided consent for completion of a questionnaire and additional testing on residual material from swabs taken for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR (Allplex Seegene). Daily, a random subset was tested for sixteen respiratory viruses by multiplex realtime PCRs (Seegene). RESULTS: Between October 6th (week 40) 2021 and April 22nd (week 16) 2022, 3,969 subjects were tested. The weekly median age ranged from 23 to 39 years. The prevalence of respiratory symptoms ranged from 98.5% (week 40) to 27.4% (week 1). The prevalence of detection of any respiratory virus (including SARS-CoV-2), ranged from 19.6% in week 49 to 75.3% in week 14. SARS-CoV-2 prevalence ranged from 2.2% (week 40) to 63.3% (week 14). Overall, SARS-CoV-2 was detected most frequently (27.3%), followed by rhinoviruses (14.6%, range 3.5-47.8%) and seasonal coronaviruses (3.7%, range 0-10.4%, mostly 229E and OC43). Influenzavirus was detected in 3.0% of participants from week 6 onwards. CONCLUSIONS: Integrated respiratory viral surveillance within public testing facilities is feasible and informative. Prevalences may be affected by changes in SARS-CoV-2 prevention and testing policies. Population characteristics help to interpret trends over time. Integrated surveillance may inform policymakers and hospitals for adequate response measures during respiratory seasons.

Decontamination of the digestive tract and oropharynx in ICU patients.

BACKGROUND: Selective digestive tract decontamination (SDD) and selective oropharyngeal decontamination (SOD) are infection-prevention measures used in the treatment of some patients in intensive care, but reported effects on patient outcome are conflicting. METHODS: We evaluated the effectiveness of SDD and SOD in a crossover study using cluster randomization in 13 intensive care units (ICUs), all in The Netherlands. Patients with an expected duration of intubation of more than 48 hours or an expected ICU stay of more than 72 hours were eligible. In each ICU, three regimens (SDD, SOD, and standard care) were applied in random order over the course of 6 months. Mortality at day 28 was the primary end point. SDD consisted of 4 days of intravenous cefotaxime and topical application of tobramycin, colistin, and amphotericin B in the oropharynx and stomach. SOD consisted of oropharyngeal application only of the same antibiotics. Monthly point-prevalence studies were performed to analyze antibiotic resistance. RESULTS: A total of 5939 patients were enrolled in the study, with 1990 assigned to standard care, 1904 to SOD, and 2045 to SDD; crude mortality in the groups at day 28 was 27.5%, 26.6%, and 26.9%, respectively. In a random-effects logistic-regression model with age, sex, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE II) score, intubation status, and medical specialty used as covariates, odds ratios for death at day 28 in the SOD and SDD groups, as compared with the standard-care group, were 0.86 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.74 to 0.99) and 0.83 (95% CI, 0.72 to 0.97), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In an ICU population in which the mortality rate associated with standard care was 27.5% at day 28, the rate was reduced by an estimated 3.5 percentage points with SDD and by 2.9 percentage points with SOD. (Controlled Clinical Trials number, ISRCTN35176830.)

Short-course aminoglycosides as adjunctive empirical therapy in patients with Gram-negative bloodstream infection, a cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Short-course aminoglycosides as adjunctive empirical therapy to ß-lactams in patients with a clinical suspicion of sepsis are used to broaden antibiotic susceptibility coverage and to enhance bacterial killing. We quantified the impact of this approach on 30-day mortality in a subset of sepsis patients with a Gram-negative bloodstream infection. METHODS: From a prospective cohort study conducted in seven hospitals in the Netherlands between June 2013 and November 2015, we selected all patients with Gram-negative bloodstream infection (GN-BSI). Short-course aminoglycoside therapy was defined as tobramycin, gentamicin or amikacin initiated within a 48-hour time window around blood-culture obtainment, and prescribed for a maximum of 2 days. The outcome of interest was 30-day all-cause mortality. Confounders were selected a priori for adjustment using a propensity score analysis with inverse probability weighting. RESULTS: A total of 626 individuals with GN-BSI who received ß-lactams were included; 156 (24.9%) also received aminoglycosides for a median of 1 day. Patients receiving aminoglycosides more often had septic shock (31/156, 19.9% versus 34/470, 7.2%) and had an eight-fold lower risk of inappropriate treatment (3/156, 1.9% versus 69/470, 14.7%). Thirty-day mortality was 17.3% (27/156) and 13.6% (64/470) for patients receiving and not receiving aminoglycosides, respectively; yielding crude and adjusted odds ratios for 30-day mortality for patients treated with aminoglycosides of 1.33 (95% CI 0.80-2.15) and 1.57 (0.84-2.93), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Short-course adjunctive aminoglycoside treatment as part of empirical therapy with ß-lactam antibiotics in patients with GN-BSI did not result in improved outcomes, despite better antibiotic coverage of pathogens.

Interferon-gamma release assays during follow-up of tuberculin skin test-positive contacts.

SETTING: Following a large-scale contact investigation, individuals with a positive tuberculin skin test (TST) result were offered preventive tuberculosis treatment. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of isoniazid (INH) treatment and the effect of time on interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) results during follow-up. DESIGN: TST-positive subjects (n = 122) detected during the large-scale contact investigation were included in the study. Blood was obtained every 6 months over 2 years to perform both tests. RESULTS: Preventive INH treatment was completed by 36 of the 122 (29.5%) subjects, 71 (58.2%) were followed up with 6-monthly X-ray screening and 15 (12.3%) did not complete INH treatment. The overall percentage of individuals with a positive result remained stable during the 2 years, at approximately 45-50%, but individual responses varied over time. The majority of initially low IGRA results remained below the cut-off value, initially high IGRA results remained positive, while initially intermediate IGRA results were followed by more dynamic patterns. CONCLUSION: This study showed a highly variable pattern of IGRA responses over time and suggests limited value for their use during follow-up of latently infected individuals. However, the significance of different kinetic patterns observed among subjects with intermediate initial IGRA results warrants further study.

Development of diagnostic prediction tools for bacteraemia caused by third-generation cephalosporin-resistant enterobacteria in suspected bacterial infections: a nested case-control study.

OBJECTIVES: Current guidelines for the empirical antibiotic treatment predict the presence of third-generation cephalosporin-resistant enterobacterial bacteraemia (3GCR-E-Bac) in case of infection only poorly, thereby increasing unnecessary carbapenem use. We aimed to develop diagnostic scoring systems which can better predict the presence of 3GCR-E-Bac. METHODS: A retrospective nested case-control study was performed that included patients ≥18 years of age from eight Dutch hospitals in whom blood cultures were obtained and intravenous antibiotics were initiated. Each patient with 3GCR-E-Bac was matched to four control infection episodes within the same hospital, based on blood-culture date and onset location (community or hospital). Starting from 32 commonly described clinical risk factors at infection onset, selection strategies were used to derive scoring systems for the probability of community- and hospital-onset 3GCR-E-Bac. RESULTS: 3GCR-E-Bac occurred in 90 of 22 506 (0.4%) community-onset infections and in 82 of 8110 (1.0%) hospital-onset infections, and these cases were matched to 360 community-onset and 328 hospital-onset control episodes. The derived community-onset and hospital-onset scoring systems consisted of six and nine predictors, respectively. With selected score cut-offs, the models identified 3GCR-E-Bac with sensitivity equal to existing guidelines (community-onset: 54.3%; hospital-onset: 81.5%). However, they reduced the proportion of patients classified as at risk for 3GCR-E-Bac (i.e. eligible for empirical carbapenem therapy) with 40% (95%CI 21-56%) and 49% (95%CI 39-58%) in, respectively, community-onset and hospital-onset infections. CONCLUSIONS: These prediction scores for 3GCR-E-Bac, specifically geared towards the initiation of empirical antibiotic treatment, may improve the balance between inappropriate antibiotics and carbapenem overuse.

Quantifying within-household transmission of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing bacteria.

OBJECTIVES: Patients can acquire extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae during hospitalization, and colonized patients may transmit these bacteria after discharge, most likely to household contacts. In this study, ESBL transmission was quantified in households. METHODS: Faecal samples were longitudinally collected from hospitalized patients colonized with ESBL-producing bacteria and from their household members during hospitalization of the index patient and at 3, 6, 12 and 18 months. A mathematical household model was developed, which allowed for person-to-person transmission, acquisition from other sources (background transmission), and losing carriage. Next, a deterministic population model with a household structure was created, informed by parameter values found in the household model. RESULTS: In all, 74 index patients and 84 household members were included. In more than half of the household members ESBL-producing bacteria were demonstrated at some time during follow up. Person-to-person transmission occurred at a rate of 0.0053/colonized person/day (0.0025-0.011), background transmission at 0.00015/day (95% CI 0.00002-0.00039), and decolonization at 0.0026/day (0.0016-0.0040) for index patients and 0.0090/day (0.0046-0.018) for household members. The estimated probability of transmission from an index patient to a household contact was 67% and 37% vice versa. CONCLUSION: There is frequent transmission of ESBL-producing bacteria in households, which may contribute to the observed endemicity of ESBL carriage in the Netherlands. However, the population model suggests that there is not a single dominant acquisition route in the community.

[A patient with Legionella pneumophila serogroup-3 pneumonia, detected by PCR]. / Een patient met een pneumonie door Legionella pneumophila serogroep 3, vastgesteld door PCR.

A 59-year-old man was hospitalised because of dyspnoea, productive cough, fever, chills and malaise. Severe community-acquired pneumonia was diagnosed. Legionella urinary antigen testing, which can only detect serogroup 1, and the first culture ofa bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid sample were negative for Legionella. However, L. pneumophila DNA was detected by PCR in the BAL washing sample. Eventually, L. pneumophila serogroup 3 was isolated from this specimen by repeated culture. Although, in The Netherlands, legionellosis is caused by L. pneumophila serogroup 1 in more than 90% of all cases, this case demonstrates that a negative result of urinary antigen testing does not necessarily exclude this diagnosis. It is therefore advocated to expand the diagnostics to a Legionella PCR on respiratory material of patients with clinical signs of Legionella pneumonia in whom the urinary antigen test is negative.

Predicting carriage with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing bacteria at hospital admission: a cross-sectional study.

The prevalence of patients colonized with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria increases, especially in long-term-care facilities (LTCFs). Identification of ESBL carriers at hospital admission is relevant for infection control measures and antibiotic therapy for nosocomial infections. We aimed to develop a prediction rule for ESBL carriage at hospital admission for patients admitted from home and LTCFs, and to quantify incidences of nosocomial infections caused by ESBL-producing bacteria. The ESBL-carrier status was determined of patients admitted from LTCFs and from home settings in four hospitals in the Netherlands using perianal swabs obtained within 48 hours of admission. Risk factors for ESBL carriage were assessed. Infections caused by ESBL-producing bacteria were identified retrospectively. Among 1351 patients, 111 (8.2%) were ESBL carriers at admission: 50/579 (8.6%) admitted from LTCFs and 61/772 (7.9%) from home settings (p 0.63). Previous ESBL carriage and previous hospital admission were risk factors for ESBL carriage in multivariable analysis. The area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic curve of the model was 0.64 (95% CI 0.58-0.71). Presence of ≥1 risk factor (n = 803; 59%) had sensitivity of 72%. Incidences of nosocomial infections caused by ESBL-producing bacteria were 45.5/10,000 and 2.1/10,000 admission days for ESBL carriers and non-carriers, respectively (p <0.05). In conclusion, prevalence of ESBL carriage at hospital admission was 8.2%, and was comparable among patients admitted from LTCF and home. A clinically useful prediction rule for ESBL carriage at admission could not be developed. The absolute incidence of nosocomial infections by ESBL-producing bacteria was low, but higher among patients carrying ESBL-producing bacteria at the time of hospital admission.

Identification of patients at high risk for Clostridium difficile infection: development and validation of a risk prediction model in hospitalized patients treated with antibiotics.

To develop and validate a prediction model for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in hospitalized patients treated with systemic antibiotics, we performed a case-cohort study in a tertiary (derivation) and secondary care hospital (validation). Cases had a positive Clostridium test and were treated with systemic antibiotics before suspicion of CDI. Controls were randomly selected from hospitalized patients treated with systemic antibiotics. Potential predictors were selected from the literature. Logistic regression was used to derive the model. Discrimination and calibration of the model were tested in internal and external validation. A total of 180 cases and 330 controls were included for derivation. Age >65 years, recent hospitalization, CDI history, malignancy, chronic renal failure, use of immunosuppressants, receipt of antibiotics before admission, nonsurgical admission, admission to the intensive care unit, gastric tube feeding, treatment with cephalosporins and presence of an underlying infection were independent predictors of CDI. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the model in the derivation cohort was 0.84 (95% confidence interval 0.80-0.87), and was reduced to 0.81 after internal validation. In external validation, consisting of 97 cases and 417 controls, the model area under the curve was 0.81 (95% confidence interval 0.77-0.85) and model calibration was adequate (Brier score 0.004). A simplified risk score was derived. Using a cutoff of 7 points, the positive predictive value, sensitivity and specificity were 1.0%, 72% and 73%, respectively. In conclusion, a risk prediction model was developed and validated, with good discrimination and calibration, that can be used to target preventive interventions in patients with increased risk of CDI.

Diagnosis of enterovirus infection in the first 2 months of life by real-time polymerase chain reaction.

During summer and fall, enterovirus infections are responsible for a considerable proportion of hospitalizations of young infants. We prospectively studied the incidence of enterovirus infections via real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in blood, feces, and cerebrospinal fluid samples from infants

Sequence analysis of EBV DNA isolated from mouth washings and PBMCs of healthy individuals and blood of EBV-LPD patients.

BACKGROUND: Lymphoproliferative disorder (LPD) caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a severe complication of bone marrow transplantation. The EBV strain causing LPD is of either donor or recipient origin, however, available data are limited to only a small number of cases. To obtain solid evidence, comparison of the EBV strain that caused the EBV-LPD with pre-stem cell transplantation (SCT) EBV strains of donor and recipient is imperative. Available techniques rely on the production of EBV transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines and lack sensitivity. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to develop a simple method for EBV sequence analysis on mouth washings (MWs) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). STUDY DESIGN: EBV DNA was extracted from MWs and PBMCs that were collected from 20 healthy individuals. DNA was used for sequence analysis, using a polymerase chain reaction for the C-terminus of the LMP-1 gene. RESULTS: In seropositive individuals EBV DNA could be detected in 11/14 (79%) MWs and in 13/14 (93%) PBMC samples. Sequence analysis showed that in 11 out of 14 (79%) healthy individuals sequence patterns could be established. In these 11 healthy individuals 13 sequence patterns could be detected. Eleven of these 13 patterns (84.6%) were unique. These results encouraged us to explore the feasibility of this method on EBV DNA isolated from plasma from 9 EBV-LPD patients at time of EBV reactivation. In 7 EBV-LPD patients 8 sequence patterns were detected. Six out of 8 sequence patterns (75%) were unique. CONCLUSION: Our method is suitable for strain identification and we intend to use this technique to evaluate EBV origin in EBV-LPD patients.

Increased incidence of EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disorders after allogeneic stem cell transplantation from matched unrelated donors due to a change of T cell depletion technique.

Here, the influence of T vs T and B cell depletion on the incidence of EBV-associated lymphoproliferative disorder (EBV-LPD) after bone marrow transplantation (BMT) from a matched unrelated donor (MUD) is analyzed. From 1982 to 1997 the soy bean agglutinin/sheep red blood cell (SBA/SRBC) method was used for T cell depletion. This technique is well established, but the use of SRBC has a risk of transmitting prions or viruses. Therefore, a new T cell depletion method was introduced, using CD2 and CD3 monoclonal antibodies (CD2/3 method) instead of SRBC. Unfortunately, this led to an unexpected high number of EBV-LPDs in patients receiving transplants from MUDs. SBA depletion was reintroduced and combined with the CD2/3 method (SBA/CD2/3) in this patient population, later replaced by B cell-specific (CD19 and CD22) antibodies (CD3/19/22 method). The number of T (x 10(5)/kg) and B (x 10(5)/kg) cells in the graft was 1.5 +/- 0.8 and 2 +/- 1 (T/B ratio 0.75), 2.2 +/- 2.0 and 41 +/- 21 (ratio 0.055), 5.0 +/- 0.0 and 2 +/- 1 (ratio 2.5), 2.5 +/- 1.2 and 10 +/- 6 (ratio 0.25) using the SBA/SRBC, CD2/3, SBA/CD2/3 and CD3/19/22 techniques, respectively. When B cell depletion was performed (SBA/SRBC, SBA/CD2/3, CD3/19/22) four out of 31 patients (13%) receiving a BMT from a MUD developed an EBV-LPD. Without B cell depletion (CD2/3) this occurred in five out of seven patients (71%) (P < 0.05). A T/B cell ratio in the graft of > or = 0.25 seems sufficient to significantly reduce the incidence of EBV-LPD after BMT from MUDs.

Probable transmission of Yersinia enterocolitica from a pet dog with diarrhoea to a 1-year-old infant.

We report a highly probable case of transmission of a Yersinia enterocolitica from a pet puppy dog, adopted from a Spanish asylum, to a 1-year-old girl. After several weeks of diarrhoea, a PCR detecting enteropathogenic bacteria was performed on the faeces, revealing Y enterocolitica. Following cultures yielded a Y enterocolitica biotype 4, serotype O:3 in the faeces of the girl as well as puppy dog. Despite antibiotic treatment, symptoms and shedding of the organism in the faeces endured during a 2 month period.

Improving the timeframe between blood collection and interferon gamma release assay using T-Cell Xtend®.

UNLABELLED: Vacutainer CPT tubes require blood samples for TSPOT.TB to be processed within 8 h. In this study we evaluated the ability of T-Cell Xtend to maintain the number and function of lymphocytes after 24 and 48 h of blood storage, giving similar test results as in freshly isolated specimens. METHODS: Whole blood specimens from 59 individuals were collected in Vacutainer CPT tubes (CPT) and lithium heparin (LH) tubes. CPT tubes were processed within 8 h. T-Cell Xtend was added to LH tubes after 24 or 48 h. We also left LH tubes untreated for 48 h. Total number of white blood cells (WBC) and proportions of lymphocytes and granulocytes were determined in the isolated Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC). We also evaluated the performance of T-Cell Xtend in the TSPOT.TB assay. RESULTS: PBMC yields from T-Cell Xtend treated LH samples did not differ from PBMC yields from CPT tubes, but T-Cell Xtend had a pronounced effect on the proportions of lymphocytes and granulocytes. The mean lymphocyte percentage in PBMCs isolated from fresh CPT blood was 84.31 ± 1.14% (at t = 48 h), but was decreased to 52.72 ± 3.34% (p < 0.05) in untreated LH blood (at t = 48 h). This effect was neutralized by T-Cell Xtend (85.44 ± 0.74%). We observed a similar but opposite effect on granulocytes: The mean proportion in untreated LH blood was increased to 40.9 ± 3.67% (p < 0.001) compared to CPT blood (8.26 ± 0.89%). Treatment of LH samples with T-Cell Xtend (48 h) restored the proportion of granulocytes to 8.47 ± 0.61%. Enumeration of spots in the TSPOT.TB assay demonstrated good agreement between CPT and T-Cell Xtend results, even after 48 h. CONCLUSIONS: T-Cell Xtend efficiently removes granulocytes from PBMC suspensions and increases the proportion of lymphocytes. TSPOT.TB results from T-Cell Xtend treated blood samples are at least comparable to the results obtained from the current CPT method. Use of standard lithium heparin blood combined with T-Cell Xtend allows up to 48 h storage of blood samples for batched processing and may further decrease the rate of indeterminate TSPOT.TB results.