Using diffusion MRI data acquired with ultra-high gradient strength to improve tractography in routine-quality data.

The development of scanners with ultra-high gradient strength, spearheaded by the Human Connectome Project, has led to dramatic improvements in the spatial, angular, and diffusion resolution that is feasible for in vivo diffusion MRI acquisitions. The improved quality of the data can be exploited to achieve higher accuracy in the inference of both microstructural and macrostructural anatomy. However, such high-quality data can only be acquired on a handful of Connectom MRI scanners worldwide, while remaining prohibitive in clinical settings because of the constraints imposed by hardware and scanning time. In this study, we first update the classical protocols for tractography-based, manual annotation of major white-matter pathways, to adapt them to the much greater volume and variability of the streamlines that can be produced from today's state-of-the-art diffusion MRI data. We then use these protocols to annotate 42 major pathways manually in data from a Connectom scanner. Finally, we show that, when we use these manually annotated pathways as training data for global probabilistic tractography with anatomical neighborhood priors, we can perform highly accurate, automated reconstruction of the same pathways in much lower-quality, more widely available diffusion MRI data. The outcomes of this work include both a new, comprehensive atlas of WM pathways from Connectom data, and an updated version of our tractography toolbox, TRActs Constrained by UnderLying Anatomy (TRACULA), which is trained on data from this atlas. Both the atlas and TRACULA are distributed publicly as part of FreeSurfer. We present the first comprehensive comparison of TRACULA to the more conventional, multi-region-of-interest approach to automated tractography, and the first demonstration of training TRACULA on high-quality, Connectom data to benefit studies that use more modest acquisition protocols.

Mutations in a gene encoding an ABC transporter cause pseudoxanthoma elasticum.

Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE) is a heritable disorder characterized by calcification of elastic fibres in skin, arteries and retina that results in dermal lesions with associated laxity and loss of elasticity, arterial insufficiency and retinal haemorrhages leading to macular degeneration. PXE is usually found as a sporadic disorder, but examples of both autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant forms of PXE have been observed. Partial manifestations of the PXE phenotype have also been described in presumed carriers in PXE families. Linkage of both dominant and recessive forms of PXE to a 5-cM domain on chromosome 16p13.1 has been reported (refs 8,9). We have refined this locus to an 820-kb region containing 6 candidate genes. Here we report the exclusion of five of these genes and the identification of the first mutations responsible for the development of PXE in a gene encoding a protein associated with multidrug resistance (ABCC6).

Decreased bone density and treatment in patients with autosomal recessive cutis laxa.

AIM: Due to the occasional association pathological fractures and osteoporosis we evaluated four patients with cutis laxa syndrome for skeletal anomalies. PATIENT/METHODS: We prospectively evaluated four patients, a male and a female child and a brother-sister sib pair, with dysmorphic features, growth delay, joint anomalies, psychomotor retardation and congenital cutis laxa. The clinical features and the family history were suggestive for autosomal recessive cutis laxa syndrome type II, partially overlapping with geroderma osteodysplastica. Skeletal survey, sequential bone density measurements, endocrine and metabolic investigations were performed including N- and O-linked glycosylation analysis. ATP6V0A2 and FBLN5 mutations were ruled out in all patients. RESULTS: All children were diagnosed with significantly decreased bone density, especially in the lumbar spine, including spontaneous vertebral and rib fractures in three children. Following 24 months of bisphosphonate treatment a total restitution of bone density was observed in three cases and no relapse was detected in the 2-year follow-up period. A spontaneous improvement was found in one female during puberty. CONCLUSION: Bone disease might occur early in the course in autosomal recessive cutis laxa syndrome. We report on a significant clinical improvement and stabilization in our patients following bisphosphonate therapy. We suggest early, systemic evaluation and follow up of bone density in all children presenting with inherited cutis laxa.

Defining the phenotype in an autosomal recessive cutis laxa syndrome with a combined congenital defect of glycosylation.

Autosomal recessive cutis laxa is a genetically heterogeneous condition. Its molecular basis is largely unknown. Recently, a combined disorder of N- and O-linked glycosylation was described in children with congenital cutis laxa in association with severe central nervous system involvement, brain migration defects, seizures and hearing loss. We report on seven additional patients with similar clinical features in combination with congenital disorder of glycosylation type IIx. On the basis of phenotype in 10 patients, we define an autosomal recessive cutis laxa syndrome. The patients have a complex phenotype of neonatal cutis laxa, transient feeding intolerance, late closure of the fontanel, characteristic facial features including down-slanting palpebral fissures, short nose and small mouth, and developmental delay. There is a variable degree of the central nervous system involvement and variable systemic presentation. The biochemical analysis using transferrin isoelectric focusing gives false negative results in some of the youngest patients. Analysis of the apolipoprotein C-III isoelectric focusing, however, is diagnostic in all cases.

Morphology and synaptic input of substance P receptor-immunoreactive interneurons in control and epileptic human hippocampus.

Substance P (SP) is known to be a peptide that facilitates epileptic activity of principal cells in the hippocampus. Paradoxically, in other models, it was found to be protective against seizures by activating substance P receptor (SPR)-expressing interneurons. Thus, these cells appear to play an important role in the generation and regulation of epileptic seizures. The number, distribution, morphological features and input characteristics of SPR-immunoreactive cells were analyzed in surgically removed hippocampi of 28 temporal lobe epileptic patients and eight control hippocampi in order to examine their changes in epileptic tissues. SPR is expressed in a subset of inhibitory cells in the control human hippocampus, they are multipolar interneurons with smooth dendrites, present in all hippocampal subfields. This cell population is considerably different from SPR-positive cells of the rat hippocampus. The CA1 (cornu Ammonis subfield 1) region was chosen for the detailed morphological analysis of the SPR-immunoreactive cells because of its extreme vulnerability in epilepsy. The presence of various neurochemical markers identifies functionally distinct interneuron types, such as those responsible for perisomatic, dendritic or interneuron-selective inhibition. We found considerable colocalization of SPR with calbindin but not with parvalbumin, calretinin, cholecystokinin and somatostatin, therefore we suppose that SPR-positive cells participate mainly in dendritic inhibition. In the non-sclerotic CA1 region they are mainly preserved, whereas their number is decreased in the sclerotic cases. In the epileptic samples their morphology is considerably altered, they possessed more dendritic branches, which often became beaded. Analyses of synaptic coverage revealed that the ratio of symmetric synaptic input of SPR-immunoreactive cells has increased in epileptic samples. Our results suggest that SPR-positive cells are preserved while principal cells are present in the CA1 region, but show reactive changes in epilepsy including intense branching and growth of their dendritic arborization.

Aortic aneurysmal disease and cutis laxa caused by defects in the elastin gene.

BACKGROUND: Cutis laxa is an acquired or inherited condition characterized by redundant, pendulous and inelastic skin. Autosomal dominant cutis laxa has been described as a benign disease with minor systemic involvement. OBJECTIVE: To report a family with autosomal dominant cutis laxa and a young girl with sporadic cutis laxa, both with variable expression of an aortic aneurysmal phenotype ranging from mild dilatation to severe aneurysm or aortic rupture. METHODS AND RESULTS: Histological evaluation of aortic aneurysmal specimens indicated classical hallmarks of medial degeneration, paucity of elastic fibres, and an absence of inflammatory or atherosclerotic lesions. Electron microscopy showed extracellular elastin deposits lacking microfibrillar elements. Direct sequencing of genomic amplimers detected defects in exon 30 of the elastin gene in affected individuals, but did not in 121 normal controls. The expression of mutant elastin mRNA forms was demonstrated by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis of cutis laxa fibroblasts. These mRNAs coded for multiple mutant tropoelastins, including C-terminally truncated and extended forms as well as for molecules lacking the constitutive exon 30. CONCLUSIONS: ELN mutations may cause severe aortic disease in patients with cutis laxa. Thus regular cardiac monitoring is necessary in this disease to avert fatal aortic rupture.

Association of polymorphisms and haplotypes in the elastin gene in Dutch patients with sporadic aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: A locus containing the elastin gene has been linked to familial intracranial aneurysms in 2 distinct populations. We investigated the association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and haplotypes of SNPs in the elastin gene with the occurrence of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) from sporadic aneurysms in the Netherlands. METHODS: We genotyped 167 SAH patients and 167 matching controls for 18 exonic and intronic SNPs in the elastin gene. A Bonferroni correction was applied for multiple comparisons with all novel associations, with a correction factor derived from the number of SNPs tested (P value after Bonferroni correction [P(corr)]). RESULTS: SAH was statistically significant associated with an SNP in exon 22 of the elastin gene (minor allele frequency was 0.000 in patients and 0.028 in controls; odds ratio [OR], 0.0; 95% CI, 0.0 to 0.7; P=0.004; P(corr)=0.05) and possibly with an SNP in intron 5 (minor allele frequency was 0.062 in patients and 0.128 in controls; OR, 0.5; 95% CI, 0.2 to 0.8; P=0.007; P(corr)=0.08). Haplotypes of intron 5/exon 22 (P(corr)=0.002), intron 4/exon 22 (P(corr)=0.02), and intron 4/intron 5/exon 22 (P=9.0x10(-9)) were also associated with aneurysmal SAH. CONCLUSIONS: Variants and haplotypes within the elastin gene are associated with the risk of sporadic SAH in Dutch patients. Gradual increase of statistical power with the inclusion of 2 or 3 SNPs in the studied haplotypes supports the validity of our conclusion that the elastin gene is a susceptibility locus for SAH.

Genetic disorders of the elastic fiber system.

Over the last decade, a considerable amount of new information has emerged describing the protein components of elastic fibers. It is now evident that elastic fibers are complex extracellular matrix polymers, composed of at least 19 different proteins that comprise both the microfibrillar and the amorphous components of elastic fibers. Mutations in three of the genes encoding the most abundant of these elastic fiber proteins result in a broad spectrum of elastic tissue phenotypes, ranging from skeletal and skin abnormalities to vascular and ocular defects. The following disorders will be discussed in this review: supravalvular aortic stenosis; Williams-Beuren syndrome; cutis laxa; Marfan syndrome; ectopia lentis; familial thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections; MASS syndrome; isolated skeletal features of Marfan syndrome; Shprintzen-Goldberg syndrome; and congenital contractural arachnodactyly.

Structure and the promoter region of the mouse gene encoding the 67-kD form of glutamic acid decarboxylase.

We have cloned and determined the complete structure of the murine gene encoding the 67-kD form of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD67), the gamma-aminobutyric acid synthetic enzyme. Its coding region comprises 18 exons spanning 42 kb of genomic DNA. Exon 1 together with 64 bp of exon 2 defines the 5' untranslated region of GAD67 mRNA. Exon 18 specifies the protein's carboxyl terminal and the entire 3' untranslated region. Exons 7/A and 7/B are solely contained in the coding regions of two alternatively spliced bicistronic embryonic mRNAs, which code for the truncated embryonic GAD forms. The promoter region (P1) corresponding to the main group of transcription initiation sites is devoid of TATA and CAAT boxes but has putative binding sites for the transcription factor SP1 and is embedded in a large G + C-rich domain of a CpG island, features shared by the promoters of constitutively expressed housekeeping genes. Primer extension data suggests the existence of additional transcription start sites at 130 bp and 295 bp upstream from the major initiation site that are utilized less frequently in adult brain. The tentative distal promoters (P2 and P3) that correspond to the minor start sites resemble tissue-specific promoters with TATA and CAAT-like boxes. In 1.3 kb of the 5'-upstream region, we identified several putative transcription factor binding sites such as AP2, Hox, E-box, egr-1, and NF-kappaB and putative neuronal-specific regulatory elements, including the neuronal-restrictive silencer element, which may have functional significance in the developmental and tissue-specific expression of the GAD67 gene.

Calretinin-containing interneurons innervate both principal cells and interneurons in the CA1 region of the human hippocampus.

Hippocampal interneurons consist of functionally diverse cell types, most of them target the dendrites or perisomatic region of pyramidal cells with a few exceptions, like the calretinin-containing cells in the rat: they selectively innervate other interneurons. However, no electron microscopic data are available about the synaptic connections of calretinin-immunoreactive neurons in the human hippocampus. We aimed to provide these data to establish whether interneuron-selective interneurons indeed represent an essential feature of hippocampal circuits across distant species. Two types of calretinin-immunostained terminals were found in the CA1 region: one of them presumably derived from the thalamic reuniens nucleus, and established asymmetric synapses on dendrites and spines. The other type originating from local interneurons formed symmetric synapses on both pyramidal and interneuron dendrites. Distribution of postsynaptic targets showed that 26.8% of the targets were CR-positive interneuron dendrites, and 25.2% proved to be proximal pyramidal dendrites. CR-negative interneuron dendrites were also contacted (12.4%). Small caliber postsynaptic dendrites were not classified (28%). Somata were rarely contacted (7.6%). The present data suggest that calretinin-positive boutons do show a preference for other interneurons, but a considerable proportion of the targets are pyramidal cells. We propose that interneuron-selective inhibitory cells exist in the human Ammon's horn, and boutons innervating pyramidal cells derive from another cell type that might not exist in rodents.

[Genetic diagnosis of Williams syndrome]. / A Williams-szindróma genetikai diagnózisa.

Williams syndrome is a complex developmental disorder. The major cardiovascular component of Williams syndrome is supravalvular aortic stenosis, a progressive disease that may need surgical repair. Williams syndrome is associated with heterozygous microdeletion in the chromosomal region 7q11.23 encompassing the elastin gene. We have identified a new, highly informative tetranucleotide repeat polymorphism within the human elastin gene. This marker together with other, previously described elastin gene markers was used to show deletion of the elastin gene in nine sporadic Williams syndrome patients from Hungary. Application of polymorphisms within and flanking the elastin gene on chromosome 7 provides a fast, polymerase chain reaction based method for mutational analysis of Williams syndrome patients.

Cytological changes and antigen capture in chicken spleen during the secondary immune response to homologous and cross-reacting antigens.

It was demonstrated by autoradiography using 125I-labeled antigens that in the secondary response to bovine serum albumin (BSA), a considerable amount of antigen is localizing in the germinal centers (GC) of chicken spleen prior to the onset of antibody production. A similar early antigen capture, although of a lesser degree, was also noted when birds originally immunized with BSA were injected with human serum albumin (HSA) on a second occasion. Early antigen localization in GCs was scarcely demonstrable in the primary response. Since antigen capture requires specific antibodies, it was concluded that the antigen binding cells correspond with B lymphocytes of GCs formed during the primary immune response or with their descendants. On antigenic stimulus, these cells transform to antibody producing cells after one or more mitoses. GCs can therefore be regarded as memory units composed of cells committed to one and the same antigen. Cells of the thymus-system probably play a cooperative role in the antigen-induced formation of GCs.

A quantitative evaluation of SAGE.

Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE) is an innovative technique that offers the potential of cataloging both the identity and relative frequencies of mRNA transcripts in a given poly(A(+)) RNA preparation. Although it is a very effective approach for determining the expression of mRNA populations, there are significant biases in the observed results that are inherent in the experimental process. These are caused by sampling error, sequencing error, nonuniqueness, and nonrandomness of tag sequences. The quantitative information desired from SAGE experiments consists of estimates of the number of genes and the frequency distribution of transcript copy numbers. Of additional concern is the extent to which a given tag sequence can be assumed to be unique to its gene. The present study takes these mathematical biases into account and presents a basis for maximum likelihood estimation of gene number and transcript copy frequencies given a set of experimental results. These estimates of the true state of genomic expression are markedly different from those based directly on the observations from the underlying experiments. It also is shown that while in many cases it is probable that a given tag sequence is unique within the genome, in larger genomes this cannot be safely assumed.

A gene-dosage PCR method for the detection of elastin gene deletions in patients with Williams syndrome.

Williams syndrome (WS) is a multisystem developmental disorder associated with microdeletions at 7q11.23 that involve several genes, including the elastin gene. Using genomic DNA from a panel of normal individuals and WS patients with established hemizygosity of the elastin gene locus, we have developed a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based gene-dosage assay that rapidly detects the loss of one allele of the elastin gene. Using this procedure, we also studied a family in which the proband was previously diagnosed with WS and her mother with a balanced 7q translocation [t(7:11)(q34;q13)]. Using DNA isolated from buccal smears obtained from several individuals in this family we were able to establish normal disomy at 7q in all family members except for the proband, in which we established hemizygosity at the elastin gene locus. We were also able to successfully infer normal disomy in an unborn child in this family. The rapid diagnostic procedure described here may have a variety of applications, including fine mapping of deletion breakpoints at 7q11.23 associated with WS.

Differences by sex in cardiovascular disease in Williams syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the incidence and severity of cardiovascular disease in patients with Williams syndrome (WS) and to identify factors contributing to its variable expression. METHODS: Clinical data on patients with WS were collected from several WS centers. Elastin gene deletions were confirmed in all patients. Age at diagnosis, growth data, and cardiovascular diagnoses were recorded retrospectively. Cardiac diagnoses were made on the basis of echocardiographic data. The severity of supravalvular aortic stenosis was recorded by using a 4-step scale (none, mild, moderate, severe). RESULTS: Statistical analysis of the data revealed that the severity of both supravalvular aortic stenosis and total cardiovascular disease was significantly greater in male patients than female patients (P <.002 and P <.002, respectively; Kruskal-Wallis rank-sum test). This difference was not accounted for by differences in height, weight, body mass index, or head circumference. The clinical diagnosis of WS was made at a significantly younger age in male patients (P <.01, Student t test). Earlier diagnosis was partly because of increased incidence and severity of cardiovascular disease. Another determinant of early diagnosis was low body mass index. CONCLUSION: Penetrance and severity of the elastin arteriopathy in patients with WS is affected by sex. We hypothesize that differences by sex in arterial stenoses may be related to prenatal hormonal effects. Future epidemiologic and in vitro studies may provide additional insight into the pathogenetic mechanisms of these observed differences.

Altered bladder function in transgenic mice expressing rat elastin.

The elasticity of tissues subjected to repeated deformation is provided by the presence of elastic fibers in the extracellular matrix (ECM). The most abundant component of elastic fibers is elastin, whose soluble precursor is tropoelastin. To establish the role elastin plays in the bladder, this study describes the biosynthetic, histologic, and physiologic consequences of expression of an isoform of rat tropoelastin in transgenic mouse bladder. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to determine expression of a rat tropoelastin minigene in transgenic mice. Histochemical methods were used to demonstrate changes in elastic fibers in frozen sections of bladder. Cystometric analysis was carried out in transgenic and non-transgenic mice, prior to and after 3 weeks of partial outlet obstruction. The PCR assay demonstrated that bladder tissue of transgenic mice expressed rat tropoelastin mRNA, whereas non-transgenes did not. Increased deposition of elastic fibers was demonstrated with the Verhoeff-van Gieson stain. Bladders of transgenic animals were more compliant than bladders of their non-transgenic littermates. Partial outlet obstruction resulted in increased bladder volume and more compliant bladders in non-transgenic mice. In contrast, the bladder volume and compliance in transgenes was almost unchanged by obstruction. This study demonstrates that normal elastic fiber assembly is prerequisite for the compliant properties of the bladder wall. Moreover, the response of the bladder to obstruction is critically influenced by elastin synthesis.

Supravalvular aortic stenosis: a splice site mutation within the elastin gene results in reduced expression of two aberrantly spliced transcripts.

We have screened the elastin gene for mutations responsible for supravalvular aortic stenosis (SVAS) in two large, independently collected families with isolated (nonsyndromic) SVAS. By single-strand conformation polymorphism and heteroduplex analysis, we have identified a C to G transversion within the acceptor splice site of exon 16 in SVAS patients from both families. This mutation segregates in both families with high penetrance of SVAS, and all affected individuals carry the mutation. Haplotype analysis by using closely linked polymorphisms, including a previously unreported BfaI restriction fragment length polymorphism within the 3'-UTR of the elastin gene, indicates that the mutations found in the two apparently non-overlapping kindreds are identical by descent. To study the effect of the mutation on the expression of the mutant allele, we have established a primary skin fibroblast culture from one of the affected individuals. Reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction analysis of elastin mRNA species indicates that the mutation results in two abnormal elastin mRNA species. One mutant elastin mRNA is generated by the activation of a cryptic splice site that lies within intron 15 and that adds 44 bp of intronic sequence to the sequence encoded by exon 16. This insertion creates a frame shift that results in a 59-amino-acid-long abnormal protein sequence and leads to a termination codon in the mRNA sequence encoded by exon 17. The smaller abnormal mRNA species arises as a consequence of the skipping of exon 16. This study demonstrates, for the first time, the expression of mutant alleles of the elastin gene in patients with isolated SVAS.

Elastin gene deletions in Williams syndrome patients result in altered deposition of elastic fibers in skin and a subclinical dermal phenotype.

Williams syndrome (WS) is a complex developmental disorder with multisystem involvement known to be the result of a microdeletion in the q11.23 region of chromosome 7. This deletion involves several genes, including the elastin gene. Although elastic fibers are important constituents of skin, little is known about the skin phenotype in WS patients. We have therefore studied the skin of four WS patients in which we've shown the deletion of one copy of the elastin gene. Physical examination and indirect immunofluorescent microscopy of elastin did not detect any major phenotypic or morphologic changes in the skin. We were able, however, to show subtle textural changes in skin and, by electron microscopy, that the amorphous component of elastic fibers in WS patients was consistently reduced when compared to normal controls. These findings indicate that deletion of one copy of the elastin gene results in reduced deposition of elastin in dermal elastic fibers, an altered elastic fiber ultrastructure, and a subclinical dermal phenotype in the children and young adult patients analyzed in this study.

Supravalvular aortic stenosis: genetic and molecular dissection of a complex mutation in the elastin gene.

We have identified two elastin gene (ELN) mutations located in cis in two related families with supravalvular aortic stenosis (SVAS). These mutations included an in-frame duplication in exon 18 (1034-1057dup) and a single base substitution in exon 26 (1829G-->A) predicted to result in the amino acid substitution R610Q. Haplotype analysis in one of the families identified an individual with a recombination between exon 18 and 26 of the elastin gene. This individual was unaffected and carried the exon 18 insertion mutation but not 1829G-->A. Skin fibroblasts were established from this recombinant normal individual and from an affected individual carrying both of the mutations. Reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis indicated that the expression of the mutant allele was reduced to 12%-27% of the normal allele in the affected but not in the unaffected individual. RNA-blot hybridization and immunoprecipitation experiments revealed reduced steady-state elastin mRNA levels and tropoelastin synthesis in the affected individual. RT-PCR analysis of the mRNA rescued by cycloheximide treatment indicated that mutation 1829G-->A created a cryptic donor splice site within exon 26, resulting in the deletion of four nucleotides at the 3'-end of exon 26 and a frameshift in the mRNA. This frameshift mutation generated a premature termination codon in the domain encoded by exon 28, clearly resulting in nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) of this frameshift RNA product. Despite considerable variability in the molecular nature of mutations responsible for SVAS, the unifying mechanism appears to be the generation of null alleles by NMD leading to elastin haploinsufficiency.