The serine protease inhibitor HAMpin-1 produced by the ectoparasite Hyalomma anatolicum salivary gland modulates the host complement system.

Ticks are notable vectors of diseases affecting both humans and animals, with Hyalomma anatolicum being of particular significance due to its wide distribution and capability to transmit a variety of pathogens, including Theileria annulata, and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus. This study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effects of Hyalomma anatolicum salivary gland extract (HaSGE) and the identification of its key component on the complement system of the host's innate immune defense. We demonstrated that HaSGE exerts a dose-dependent inhibition on the complement activation in a host-specific manner. Mechanistic studies revealed that HaSGE interferes with blocking the deposition and cleavage of complement proteins C3 and C5, thus preventing the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC). Further, we identified a serine protease inhibitor, HAMpin-1, from the HaSGE through proteomic analysis and characterized its structure, function, and interaction with complement proteins. HAMpin-1 exhibited potent inhibitory activity against chymotrypsin and cathepsin-G, and notably, it is the first serpin from ticks shown to inhibit the classical and lectin pathways of the complement system. The expression of HAMpin-1 was highest in the salivary glands, suggesting its crucial role in blood feeding and immune evasion. Our findings revealed one of the potential mechanisms employed by H. anatolicum to modulate host immune responses at the interface, offering new insights into tick-host interactions.

Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii can be vertically transmitted in Hyalomma anatolicum.

In this study, a tick intracellular symbiont, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii, was detected in Hyalomma anatolicum from Xinjiang, China. Morphological identification and cytochrome oxidase subunit I sequence alignment were used for molecular identification of the tick species. PCR detection further revealed the presence of endosymbiont C. M. mitochondrii in the tick. Specific primers were designed for Groel and 16S rRNA genes of C. M. mitochondrii for PCR amplification and phylogenetic analysis. To further investigate the vertical transmission characteristics of C. M. mitochondrii, specific primers were designed based on the FabⅠ gene fragment to detect C. M. mitochondrii in different developmental stages and organs of the tick using qPCR. Of the 336 tick specimens collected from the field, 266 samples were identified as H. anatolicum on the basis of morphological characteristics. The gene fragment alignment results of COI confirmed that these ticks were H. anatolicum. The phylogenetic analysis showed that Groel gene of C. M. mitochondrii clustered with Midichloria strains detected in Ixodes ricinus ticks from Italy and Ixodes holocyclus ticks from Australia, with 100% sequence similarity. Furthermore, the 16S rRNA gene of C. M. mitochondrii clusters with the strains isolated from Hyalomma rufipes ticks in Italy, exhibiting the highest degree of homology. qPCR results showed that C. M. mitochondrii was present at all developmental stages of H. anatolicum, with the highest relative abundance in eggs, and lower relative abundance in nymphs and unfed males. With female tick blood feeding, the relative abundance of C. M. mitochondrii increased, and a particularly high relative abundance was detected in the ovaries of engorged female ticks. This study provides information for studying the survival adaptability of H. anatolicum, and provides data for further investigation of the mechanisms regulating tick endosymbionts in ticks, enriching the reference materials for comprehensive prevention and control of tick-borne diseases.

Population structure and haplotype network analyses of Hyalomma anatolicum based on the large subunit ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene.

Hyalomma anatolicum, an Anatolian hard tick is a well-recognized vector involved in the transmission of various pathogens to animals and humans. The present study elucidated the population structure and haplotype network of H. anatolicum based on the mitochondrial large subunit ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene sequence. The population structure and haplotype network analysis of 75 sequences archived in the GenBank, including the 15 sequences generated herein, yielded 24 haplotypes. Haplotype 1 (Hap_1) was the predominant haplotype consisting of 45 sequences from India, China, Pakistan, Turkey, Egypt, Iraq, and Tajikistan. The complete haplotype network exhibited a stellate conformation, highlighting a recent population expansion. The overall dataset, together with the sequences corresponding to India, China, and Pakistan, showed a high haplotype (0.638 ± 0.065, 0.671 ± 0.103, 0.753 ± 0.099, and 0.854 ± 0.061, respectively) and low nucleotide (0.00407 ± 0.00090, 0.00525 ± 0.00196, 0.00680 ± 0.00233, and 0.00453 ± 0.00056, respectively) diversity, further emphasized a recent population expansion. The neutrality indices including Tajima's D, Fu and Li's D, and Fu and Li's F for the complete dataset (- 2.661, - 6.008, and - 5.649, respectively) as well as for the sequences from India (- 2.223, - 3.414, and - 3.567, respectively) were negative, suggesting deviation from neutrality and a recent population expansion. The present study provided novel insights into the population structure and haplotype networks of H. anatolicum based on the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene, and the different tests inferred a low genetic differentiation and suggested a recent population expansion of this economically important tick species.

Insights into the involvement of male Hyalomma anatolicum ticks in transmitting Anaplasma marginale, lumpy skin disease virus and Theileria annulata.

Ticks can transmit viruses, bacteria, and parasites to humans, livestock, and pet animals causing tick-borne diseases (TBDs) mechanically or biologically in the world. Lumpy skin disease virus, Anaplasma marginale, and Theileria annulata inflict severe infections in cattle, resulting in significant economic losses worldwide. The study investigated the potential transmissions of LSDV, A. marginale, and T. annulata through male Hyalomma anatolicum ticks in cattle calves. Two 6-month-old Holstein crossbred calves designated as A and B were used. On day 1, 15 uninfected female ticks (IIa) and infected batch of 40 male ticks (I) were attached on calf A for 11 days. Filial transmission of the infections was observed in female ticks (IIb) collected from calf A, where 8 female ticks had been co-fed with infected male ticks. The blood sample of calf B was found positive through PCR for the infections. The larvae and egg pools obtained from the infected ticks were also tested positive in PCR. The study confirmed the presence of these mixed pathogens and potential intra-stadial and transovarial transmissions of A. marginale, T. annulata, and LSDV in male and female ticks of H. anatolicum and experimental calves to establish the feasibility of infections through an in vivo approach.

Nested PCR assay for detection of Theileria annulata in Hyalomma anatolicum infesting cattle from coastal Odisha, India.

Ticks are economically important obligatory blood feeding arthropods that have a pivotal role in transmission of infection. The present study was conducted in ixodid ticks collected from four districts of coastal Odisha, India to investigate the prevalence of Theileria annulata. Adult semi engorged Hyalomma anatolicum ticks (n = 178) were dissected, the salivary gland was isolated and DNA was extracted. A nested PCR targeting the Tams1 gene of T. annulata, utilizing two sets of primers (N516F, N517R, and Ta14136iF, Ta249R) was utilized for detection of the parasite. The PCR products were then sequenced and subjected to BLAST analysis, alignment, and phylogenetic study. Two sequences deposited in GenBank were assigned Accession No MH477290.1 and Accession No MH477291.1. The molecular investigation of T. annulata revealed an overall prevalence of 14.6% in tick vectors, and nested PCR was found to have significant (p < 0.05) higher results than primary PCR. A significant higher presence (p < 0.05) was recorded in female ticks compared with male ticks. This is the first report of detection of the parasite in tick vectors in the state of Odisha.

Prediction and validation of cross-protective candidate antigen of Hyalomma asiaticum cathepsin L between H. asiaticum and H. anatolicum.

Hyalomma asiaticum and H. anatolicum are tick species in Eurasia and Africa with major medical and veterinary significance. Beside their direct pathogenic effects, H. asiaticum and H. anatolicum are vectors of important diseases of livestock and in some instances of zoonoses. In search of ways to address the increasing incidence of global acaricide resistance, tick control through vaccination is regarded as a sustainable alternative approach. Cathepsin L-like cysteine protease (CPL) is a potent hemoglobinase, and plays important roles in the digestion of blood acquired from a host. CPL from H. anatolicum (HanCPL) with high similarity (> 90%) for H. asiaticum CPL (HasCPL) were aligned by in silico analysis. After further in vitro validation, the anti-HasCPL sera have cross-reactivity between the different total native protein of life stages and tissues for H. asiaticum and H. anatolicum. Furthermore, we further confirmed that recombinant HasCPL (rHasCPL) immunized rabbits were partially cross-protected (54.8%) by H. anatolicum infestation.

Comparative study of esterases in deltamethrin and diazinon resistant Rhipicephalus microplus and Hyalomma anatolicum ticks collected from the Trans-Gangetic plains of India.

A comparative analysis of esterases in susceptible and resistant ticks revealed six types of esterases (EST-1b, EST-2b, EST-3b, EST-4b, EST-5b and EST-6b) in Rhipicephalus microplus and four types (EST-1h, EST-2h, EST-3h, EST-4h) in Hyalomma anatolicum using α-naphthyl acetate substrate. Inhibition studies with eserine sulfate, p-chloromercuribenzoate, copper sulphate and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride revealed a marked variation in band intensity between susceptible and resistant ticks, with the latter being more intense. Qualitative expression of EST-4b along with an extra band of EST-5b and EST-6b were indicative of deltamethrin and diazinon resistance in R. microplus, whereas qualitative expression of EST-4h was probably responsible for diazinon resistance in H. anatolicum. The data suggest that increased esterase activity may represent a detoxification strategy leading to the development of resistance in these tick populations.

In vitro assessment of the acaricidal activity of Piper longum, Piper nigrum, and Zingiber officinale extracts against Hyalomma anatolicum ticks.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases are a major constraint for the sustainable cattle industry in the tropical and subtropical regions including the Indian subcontinent. The development of resistance to most of the commonly used acaricides leads to an attempt to screen plant extracts and their combinations for their possible acaricidal activity to develop an eco-friendly tick control alternative. An alcoholic and various aqueous extracts of Piper longum, Piper nigrum and Zingiber officinale and their combinations were evaluated for acaricidal activity against the three-host ixodid tick, Hyalomma anatolicum by larval immersion test using 14-21 days old unfed larvae. The efficacy was assessed by measuring larval mortality (%) and the lethal concentrations for 50% (LC50) and 95% (LC95) with their 95% confidence limits (CL) values were estimated by applying regression equation analysis to the probit transformed data of mortality. A concentration-dependent mortality response was recorded in all extracts prepared from seeds of P. longum and P. nigrum and their combinations. The highest acaricidal property was exhibited by the alcoholic extract of P. longum seeds with the minimum LC50 and LC95 (95% CL) values of 0.071% (0.07-0.072) and 0.135% (0.13-0.14), respectively, followed by alcoholic combinations. Interestingly, no acaricidal activity was recorded in extracts prepared from the rhizome of Z. officinale. The results indicated that the ethanolic extracts of P. longum and P. nigrum and their combinations can be used effectively for tick control in an integrated format.

Molecular evidence of tick-borne pathogens in Hyalomma anatolicum ticks infesting cattle in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Northwestern China.

Although tick-borne pathogens have been widely reported in ticks in China, there is little information available on the prevalence of information in Hyalomma ticks from cattle. This study aims to determine the occurrence of pathogens in Hyalomma anatolicum collected from cattle in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China, by PCR, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., Rickettsia massiliae and Anaplasma bovis were identified, whereas DNA of Ehrlichia species and an Anaplasma platys-like pathogen were also detected. Our findings highlight the risk of infection of animals and humans with these pathogens in north-western China.

Acaricide resistance in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and Hyalomma anatolicum collected from Haryana and Rajasthan states of India.

Acaricide resistance status of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus and Hyalomma anatolicum ticks against deltamethrin and diazinon was assessed in Hisar (Haryana) and its adjoining district Churu (Rajasthan) using adult immersion test (AIT) and larval packet test (LPT). The mortality slope, LC50, LC95, 95 % confidence limit and resistance factor of field ticks were determined. Results showed that R. (B.) microplus ticks collected from Tohana (Hisar) were found resistant to both the acaricides while the ticks of Agroha (Hisar) were found to be susceptible using AIT. Similar results were observed by using standard method of LPT. Again, H. anatolicum tick isolates of Tara Nagar (Churu) were found susceptible whereas Churu tick isolates were found to be resistant using AIT for both the acaricides. LPT indicated susceptible status of H. anatolicum ticks collected from Churu as well as Tara Nagar for both the acaricides. The study warrants the need for strategic use of available acaricides to overcome the development of acaricide resistance in ticks.

Detection of Malathion Resistance in Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum from Bathinda District, Punjab.

OBJECTIVE: The resistance status against malathion in Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum ticks collected from Bathinda district, Punjab, was evaluated by adult immersion test (AIT). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Technical grade malathion was used for conduction of AIT with 2 min immersion time protocol. The regression graph of probit mortality of ticks was plotted against log values of increasing concentrations of malathion and was utilized for the determination of slope of mortality, LC50, LC95 (95% confidence interval [CI]) and resistance factor (RF). The reproductive parameters of treated ticks viz. egg mass weight, reproductive index (RI), and percentage inhibition of oviposition (% IO) were also studied. RESULTS: The increasing concentration of malathion showed an upward trend in per cent tick mortality. The slope of mortality (95% CI) was 2.489 ± 0.719 (2.489 ± 0.719) and value of goodness of fit (R(2)) was 0.799. The LC50 (95% CI) and LC95 (95% CI) values were recorded as 9099.2 (8378.6-9881.7) and 41,511.3 (35,060.2-49,149.4) ppm, respectively, with RF as 16.60 indicating level II resistance status. A negative dose-dependent slope of egg mass weight (-91.79 ± 25.15 [-171.8 to -11.76]) was recorded as the survived ticks laid significantly (P = 0.0355) fewer eggs. The mean RI of treated ticks decreased with increasing concentrations of drug and the slope (95% CI) was -0.293 ± 0.059 (-0.482 to -0.105). Further, a dose-dependent significant increase (P = 0.0157) in the mean % IO was recorded in treated ticks. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the current study would be useful in the formulation and implementation of effective tick strategies in the region.

Codon optimization of voraxin α sequence enhances the immunogenicity of a recombinant vaccine against Hyalomma anatolicum infestation in rabbits.

Research has shown that voraxin α derived from male ticks stimulates blood feeding to engorge in female ticks. Whereas, the oviposition rate, egg weight, and body weight of female ticks were reduced in animals vaccinated with recombinant (r-) voraxin α. These data suggest a potential role of r-voraxin α as a functional anti-tick antigen in Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Amblyomma hebraeum tick infestation. This study investigated the immunogenicity of r-voraxin α protein from Hyalomma anatolicum (H. anatolicum) tick as an anti-tick vaccine in rabbits. The H. anatolicum voraxin α sequence was optimized according to the codon usage in E. coli before being sub-cloned into pQE30. The gene sequence of the voraxin α was synthesized, verified by DNA sequencing, cloned in a pQE30 vector, and transformed into E. coli. Then, the expression of the r-voraxin α protein was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. Subsequently, three rabbits were immunized with the r-voraxin α as the vaccinated group, whereas three rabbits without injection were considered the control group. The result indicated the success of cloning of codon-optimized H. anatolicum voraxin α gene. Moreover, the expression of the r-voraxin α protein (approximately 18 kDa) in the bacterial expression system was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. The results of this study showed that the mortality rate in vaccine recipients increased compared to the control group (P < 0.01). Also, the egg weight, oviposition rate, and engorgement weight of female ticks fed from vaccinated animals were significantly reduced compared to the control group (P < 0.01). The results confirmed that the codon-optimized H. anatolicum voraxin α gene expressed in the bacterial expression system could be a suitable anti-tick vaccine against H. anatolicum tick infestation.

Insight into Hyalomma anatolicum biology by comparative genomics analyses.

Hyalomma anatolicum is an obligatory blood-sucking ectoparasite and contributes to the transmission of Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus, Theileria spp. and Babesia spp. Progress in exploring the adaptive strategy of this ectoparasite and developing tools to fight it has been hindered by the lack of a complete genome. Herein, we assembled the genome using diverse sources of data from multiple sequencing platforms and annotated the 1.96 Gb genome of Hy. anatolicum. Comparative genome analyses and the predicted protein encoding genes reveal unique facets of this genome, including gene family expansion associated with blood feeding and digestion, multi-gene families involved in detoxification, a great number of neuropeptides and corresponding receptors regulating tick growth, development, and reproduction, and glutathione S-transferase genes playing roles in insecticide resistance and detoxification of multiple xenobiotic factors. This high quality reference genome provides fundamental data for obtaining insights into a variety of aspects of tick biology and developing novel strategies to fight notorious tick vectors of human and animal pathogens.

Molecular Detection of Theileria ovis, Anaplasma ovis, and Rickettsia spp. in Rhipicephalus turanicus and Hyalomma anatolicum Collected from Sheep in Southern Xinjiang, China.

The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Xinjiang) borders eight countries and has a complex geographic environment. There are almost 45.696 million herded sheep in Xinjiang, which occupies 13.80% of China's sheep farming industry. However, there is a scarcity of reports investigating the role of sheep or ticks in Xinjiang in transmitting tick-borne diseases (TBDs). A total of 894 ticks (298 tick pools) were collected from sheep in southern Xinjiang. Out of the 298 tick pools investigated in this study, Rhipicephalus turanicus (Rh. turanicus) and Hyalomma anatolicum (H. anatolicum) were identified through morphological and molecular sequencing. In the southern part of Xinjiang, 142 (47.65%), 86 (28.86%), and 60 (20.13%) tick pools were positive for Rickettsia spp., Theileria spp., and Anaplasma spp., respectively. Interestingly, the infection rate of Rickettsia spp. (73%, 35.10%, and 28.56-41.64%) was higher in Rh. turanicus pools than in H. anatolicum pools (4%, 4.44%, and 0.10-8.79%) in this study. Fifty-one tick pools were found to harbor two pathogens, while nineteen tick pools were detected to have the three pathogens. Our findings indicate the presence of Rickettsia spp., Theileria spp., and Anaplasma spp. potentially transmitted by H. anatolicum and Rh. turanicus in sheep in southern Xinjiang, China.

Molecular characterization of HAO3, the homologue of the Bm86 tick vaccine antigen, from the Iranian isolate of Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum.

Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum tick is widely distributed in many parts of Iran and while the commercial vaccines based on the application of midgut-derived recombinant Bm86 antigen are used for its control, limited information about the efficiency of this vaccination in Iran is available. Herein, with the final aim of evaluation of Bm86-based heterologous vaccination, as the primary step the Bm86 homologue of the H. a. anatolicum (Hao3) from an Iranian isolate was characterized and compared with the commercialized Bm86 and other Bm86 homologoue sequences available in GenBank. Our in silico predictions resulted in the identification of seven epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like domains, one hydrophobic transmembrane region, one leader sequence and several glycosylation sites within the structure of both Hao3 and Bm86 proteins, which suggested the pattern of extracellular membrane-bound glycoproteins with the role of regulation in cell growth for both proteins. Moreover, while the nucleotide and amino acid sequences corresponding to Bm86 homologue showed a high level of conservation among the Iranian isolates (Hao3, Hao3-1 and Hao3-2, more than 99%), the Hao3 amino acid sequence had a homology of around 89%, 64% and 65% with that of Indian, Australian and Argentinean isolates, respectively. This indicated a considerable variation between commercial Bm86 antigen and H. a. anatolicum Bm86-like protein of Iranian and Indian isolates. Taking together, these results imply that the efficiency of commercial Bm86-based vaccine against the Iranian H. a. anatolicum may be under the question and indicates the value of the development of Hao3-based recombinant vaccines and further planning for their in vivo evaluation.

Guardians of the Herd: Molecular Surveillance of Tick Vectors Uncovers Theileriosis Perils in Large Ruminants.

Theileria sp. (Piroplasmida: Theileriidae) is one of the most widely known infections transmitted by hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) and has been linked to significant economic losses across the globe. The study's main emphasis was theileriosis, a disease that is common in Pakistan and has an incidence ranging from 0.6% to 33%. Through DNA screening of the vector ticks and host blood, this study sought to determine the risk of tick-borne theileriosis in populations of buffalos (Bubalus bubalis) and cattle (Bos indicus) in Toba Tek Singh district of Punjab, Pakistan. Identified tick species include Hyalomma anatolicum (35.4%), Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (30.2%), and R. sanguineus (25%). Tick specimens were collected from animals and their respective microenvironments. PCR assays targeting Theileria annulata were used to investigate the infection in the DNA extracted from the collected blood samples from large ruminants and salivary glands (SGs) of the Hyalomma ticks. The 18S rRNA of T. annulata was amplified using specific primers. Positive T. annulata amplicons were sequenced and verified using BLAST analysis. Overall, 50% of SGs contained T. annulate DNA. Female ticks, and those collected from cattle and from riverine environments had significantly higher (p < 0.05) rates of Theileria infection in their acini. Overall prevalence of Theileria infection was 35.9% in blood collected from large ruminants. Cattle had a substantially greater frequency of bovine theileriosis (43.2%) than buffalos (28.7%). Age and sex of large ruminants were significantly positively associated (p < 0.05) with Theileria infection. Furthermore, compared to non-riverine cattle (35%) and buffalo (19.5%), riverine cattle (52.2%) and buffalo (36.2%) showed a considerably higher prevalence. The results of this study, which is the first in Pakistan to examine the blood of large ruminants and vectorial function of Ixodid ticks in the transmission of T. annulata along with associated risk factors, offer an important insight for risk assessment of Theileria infection in livestock using vectorial infectivity.

Co-Immunization Efficacy of Recombinant Antigens against Rhipicephalus microplus and Hyalomma anatolicumTick Infestations.

The immunoprophylactic management of ticks is the most effective option to control tick infestations and counter spread the acaricide resistance problem worldwide. Several researchers reported an inconsistent efficacy of the single antigen-based immunization of hosts against different tick species. In the present study, to develop a multi-target immunization protocol, proteins from Rhipicephalus microplus BM86 and Hyalomma anatolicum subolesin (SUB) and tropomyosin (TPM) were targeted to evaluate the cross-protective potential. The sequence identities of the BM86, SUB, and TPM coding genes amongst Indian tick isolates of targeted species were 95.6-99.8%, 98.7-99.6%, and 98.9-99.9%, respectively, while at the predicted amino acid level, the identities were 93.2 to 99.5, 97.6 to 99.4, and 98.2 to 99.3%. The targeted genes were expressed in the eukaryotic expression system, pKLAC2-Kluyveromyces lactis, and 100 µg each of purified recombinant protein (Bm86-89 kDa, SUB-21 kDa, and TPM-36 kDa) mixed with adjuvant was injected individually through the intramuscular route at different sites of the body on days 0, 30, and 60 to immunize cross-bred cattle. Post-immunization, a statistically significant (p < 0.001) antibody response (IgG, IgG1, and IgG2) in comparison to the control, starting from 15 to 140 days, against each antigen was recorded. Following multi-antigen immunization, the animals were challenged twice with the larvae of R. microplus and H. anatolicum and theadults of H. anatolicum, and a significant vaccine efficacy of 87.2% and 86.2% against H. anatolicum larvae and adults, respectively, and 86.7% against R. microplus was obtained. The current study provides significant support to develop a multi-antigen vaccine against cattle tick species.

Protective Efficacy of Multiple Epitope-Based Vaccine against Hyalomma anatolicum, Vector of Theileria annulata and Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus.

Hyalomma anatolicum is the principal vector for Theileria annulata, T. equi, and T. Lestoquardi in animals and the Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in humans. Due to the gradual loss of efficacy of the available acaricides against field tick populations, the development of phytoacaricides and vaccines has been considered the two most critical components of the integrated tick management strategies. In the present study, in order to induce both cellular and humoral immune responses in the host against H. anatolicum, two multi-epitopic peptides (MEPs), i.e., VT1 and VT2, were designed. The immune-stimulating potential of the constructs was determined by in silicoinvestigation on allergenicity (non-allergen, antigenic (0.46 and 1.0046)), physicochemical properties (instability index 27.18 and 35.46), as well as the interaction of constructs with TLRs by docking and molecular dynamics analysis. The immunization efficacy of the MEPs mixed with 8% MontanideTM gel 01 PR against H. anatolicum larvae was determined as 93.3% and 96.9% in VT1- and VT2-immunized rabbits, respectively. Against adults, the efficacy was 89.9% and 86.4% in VT1- and VT2-immunized rabbits, respectively. A significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-4) and significantly higher IgG response was observed in a VT1-immunized group of rabbits as compared with the response observed in the control group. However, in the case of the VT2-immunized rabbits, an elevated anti-VT2 IgG and pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-2) (>30 fold) along with a decreased level of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 (0.75 times) was noted. The efficacy of MEP and its potential immune stimulatory responses indicate that it might be useful for tick management.

Screening for the "Achilles Heel" of Hyalomma anatolicum Ticks by RNA Interference Technology and an Update on Anti-Tick Vaccine Design.

Over the years, RNA interference (RNAi) has evolved as a valuable tool to study the tick gene function, screening and preliminary characterization of tick-protective antigens in a relatively short time, with a minimal use of laboratory animals before conducting expensive vaccine trials for the development of improved vaccine composition. In this process, a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) of gene of interest is introduced into the tick system which specifically suppresses expression of a target gene. The results of RNAi-based gene silencing were interpreted by reduction in targeted gene transcript, changes in phenotypic data and anatomical/ biochemical changes in ticks; thereby, providing a clue to the probable role played by the gene in the tick biological system. Across the globe, various tick research groups applied RNAi technique for characterization and identification of new anti-tick vaccine targets. Herein, we used the RNAi tool in Hyalomma anatolicum ticks for identification and characterization of vaccine candidates.

Acaricidal, Larvacidal, and Repellent Activity of Elettaria cardamomum Essential Oil against Hyalomma anatolicum Ticks Infesting Saudi Arabian Cattle.

Background: In this experimental study, we aimed to assess the acaricidal effects of Elettaria cardamomum L. essential oil (ECEO) against Hyalomma anatolicum tick in cattle from Saudi Arabia. Methods: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was performed to identify the chemical composition of ECEO. The acaricidal, larvicidal, and repellent activity of ECEO against H. anatolicum was studied through the adult immersion test (AIT), the larval packet test (LPT), the vertical movement behavior of tick's larvae technique, anti-acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and oxidative enzyme activity. Results: By GC/MS, the most compounds were 1,8-cineole (34.3%), α-terpinyl acetate (23.3%), and α-pinene (17.7%), respectively. ECEO significantly (p < 0.001) increased the mortality rate as a dose-dependent response. After ECEO Treatment, number of eggs, egg weight, and hatchability significantly declined as a dose-dependent response. ECEO at concentrations of 5 µL/mL and above completely killed the larva. The LC50 and LC90 values for ECEO were 1.46 and 2.68 µL/mL, respectively. ECEO at concentrations of 10, 20, and 40 µL/mL showed 100% repellency activity up to 60, 120, and 360 min incubation, respectively. ECEO, especially at ½ LC50 and LC50, significantly inhibited GST and AChE activities of H. anatolicum larvae compared to the control group. Conclusions: We found promising adulticidal, larvicidal, and repellent effects of ECEO against H. anatolicum as a vector of theileriosis in Saudi Arabia. We also found that ECEO displayed these activities through inhibiting AChE and GST. Nevertheless, additional investigations are required to confirm the accurate mechanisms and the relevance of ECEO in practical application.