A metabolic switch orchestrated by IL-18 and the cyclic dinucleotide cGAMP programs intestinal tolerance.

Tissues are exposed to diverse inflammatory challenges that shape future inflammatory responses. While cellular metabolism regulates immune function, how metabolism programs and stabilizes immune states within tissues and tunes susceptibility to inflammation is poorly understood. Here, we describe an innate immune metabolic switch that programs long-term intestinal tolerance. Intestinal interleukin-18 (IL-18) stimulation elicited tolerogenic macrophages by preventing their proinflammatory glycolytic polarization via metabolic reprogramming to fatty acid oxidation (FAO). FAO reprogramming was triggered by IL-18 activation of SLC12A3 (NCC), leading to sodium influx, release of mitochondrial DNA, and activation of stimulator of interferon genes (STING). FAO was maintained in macrophages by a bistable switch that encoded memory of IL-18 stimulation and by intercellular positive feedback that sustained the production of macrophage-derived 2'3'-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) and epithelial-derived IL-18. Thus, a tissue-reinforced metabolic switch encodes durable immune tolerance in the gut and may enable reconstructing compromised immune tolerance in chronic inflammation.

Metabolic switches during development and regeneration.

Metabolic switches are a crucial hallmark of cellular development and regeneration. In response to changes in their environment or physiological state, cells undergo coordinated metabolic switching that is necessary to execute biosynthetic demands of growth and repair. In this Review, we discuss how metabolic switches represent an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that orchestrates tissue development and regeneration, allowing cells to adapt rapidly to changing conditions during development and postnatally. We further explore the dynamic interplay between metabolism and how it is not only an output, but also a driver of cellular functions, such as cell proliferation and maturation. Finally, we underscore the epigenetic and cellular mechanisms by which metabolic switches mediate biosynthetic needs during development and regeneration, and how understanding these mechanisms is important for advancing our knowledge of tissue development and devising new strategies to promote tissue regeneration.

Metabolic switch and epithelial-mesenchymal transition cooperate to regulate pluripotency.

Both metabolic switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis (OGS) and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) promote cellular reprogramming at early stages. However, their connections have not been elucidated. Here, when a chemically defined medium was used to induce early EMT during mouse reprogramming, a facilitated OGS was also observed at the same time. Additional investigations suggested that the two events formed a positive feedback loop via transcriptional activation, cooperated to upregulate epigenetic factors such as Bmi1, Ctcf, Ezh2, Kdm2b, and Wdr5, and accelerated pluripotency induction at the early stage. However, at late stages, by over-inducing glycolysis and preventing the necessary mesenchymal-epithelial transition, the two events trapped the cells at a new pluripotency state between naïve and primed states and inhibited further reprogramming toward the naïve state. In addition, the pluripotent stem cells at the new state have high similarity to epiblasts from E4.5 and E5.5 embryos, and have distinct characteristics from the previously reported epiblast-like or formative states. Therefore, the time-dependent cooperation between OGS and EMT in regulating pluripotency should extend our understanding of related fields.

What frog gill resorption brings: loss of function, cell death, and metabolic reorganization.

BACKGROUND: Anuran metamorphosis, which is driven by thyroid hormone (TH)-mediated processes, orchestrates intricate morphological and functional transformations for the transition from aquatic tadpoles to terrestrial life, providing a valuable model for studying organ functionalization, remodeling, and regression. Larva-specific organ regression is one of the most striking phenomena observed during the anuran metamorphic climax. While previous studies extensively analyzed the regression mechanisms of the tail, the molecular processes governing gill resorption remain elusive. RESULTS: We employed Microhyla fissipes as a model, and utilized a comprehensive approach involving histological analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and transcriptomics to unravel gill development and resorption. The pro-metamorphic stages revealed highly developed gill structures, emphasizing their crucial role as the primary respiratory organ for tadpoles. The transcriptomic analysis highlighted the upregulation of genes associated with enhanced respiratory efficiency, such as hemoglobin and mucins. However, as metamorphosis progressed, gill filaments underwent shrinkage, decreases in blood vessel density, and structural changes that signified a decline in respiratory function. The molecular mechanisms driving gill resorption involved the TH pathway-in particular, the upregulation of thyroid hormone receptor (TR) ß, genes associated with the tumor necrosis factor pathway and matrix metalloproteinases. Two distinct pathways orchestrate gill resorption, involving apoptosis directly induced by TH and cell death through the degradation of the extracellular matrix. In addition, metabolic reorganization during metamorphosis is a complex process, with tadpoles adapting their feeding behavior and mobilizing energy storage organs. The gills, which were previously overlooked, have been unveiled as potential energy storage organs that undergo metabolic reorganization. The transcriptomic analysis revealed dynamic changes in metabolism-related genes, indicating decreased protein synthesis and energy production and enhanced substrate transport and metabolism during metamorphic climax. CONCLUSION: This study sheds light on the structural, molecular, and metabolic dynamics during gill development and resorption in M. fissipes. The findings deepen our understanding of the intricate mechanisms governing organ regression and underscore the pivotal role of the gills in facilitating the transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats.

Synergistic effects of hormones on structural and functional maturation of cardiomyocytes and implications for heart regeneration.

The limited endogenous regenerative capacity of the human heart renders cardiovascular diseases a major health threat, thus motivating intense research on in vitro heart cell generation and cell replacement therapies. However, so far, in vitro-generated cardiomyocytes share a rather fetal phenotype, limiting their utility for drug testing and cell-based heart repair. Various strategies to foster cellular maturation provide some success, but fully matured cardiomyocytes are still to be achieved. Today, several hormones are recognized for their effects on cardiomyocyte proliferation, differentiation, and function. Here, we will discuss how the endocrine system impacts cardiomyocyte maturation. After detailing which features characterize a mature phenotype, we will contemplate hormones most promising to induce such a phenotype, the routes of their action, and experimental evidence for their significance in this process. Due to their pleiotropic effects, hormones might be not only valuable to improve in vitro heart cell generation but also beneficial for in vivo heart regeneration. Accordingly, we will also contemplate how the presented hormones might be exploited for hormone-based regenerative therapies.

Current Perspectives of Mitochondria in Sepsis-Induced Cardiomyopathy.

Sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy (SICM) is one of the leading indicators for poor prognosis associated with sepsis. Despite its reversibility, prognosis varies widely among patients. Mitochondria play a key role in cellular energy production by generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is vital for myocardial energy metabolism. Over recent years, mounting evidence suggests that severe sepsis not only triggers mitochondrial structural abnormalities such as apoptosis, incomplete autophagy, and mitophagy in cardiomyocytes but also compromises their function, leading to ATP depletion. This metabolic disruption is recognized as a significant contributor to SICM, yet effective treatment options remain elusive. Sepsis cannot be effectively treated with inotropic drugs in failing myocardium due to excessive inflammatory factors that blunt ß-adrenergic receptors. This review will share the recent knowledge on myocardial cell death in sepsis and its molecular mechanisms, focusing on the role of mitochondria as an important metabolic regulator of SICM, and discuss the potential for developing therapies for sepsis-induced myocardial injury.

STAT5 Is Necessary for the Metabolic Switch Induced by IL-2 in Cervical Cancer Cell Line SiHa.

The tumor cells reprogram their metabolism to cover their high bioenergetic demands for maintaining uncontrolled growth. This response can be mediated by cytokines such as IL-2, which binds to its receptor and activates the JAK/STAT pathway. Some reports show a correlation between the JAK/STAT pathway and cellular metabolism, since the constitutive activation of STAT proteins promotes glycolysis through the transcriptional activation of genes related to energetic metabolism. However, the role of STAT proteins in the metabolic switch induced by cytokines in cervical cancer remains poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed the effect of IL-2 on the metabolic switch and the role of STAT5 in this response. Our results show that IL-2 induces cervical cancer cell proliferation and the tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT5. Also, it induces an increase in lactate secretion and the ratio of NAD+/NADH, which suggest a metabolic reprogramming of their metabolism. When STAT5 was silenced, the lactate secretion and the NAD+/NADH ratio decreased. Also, the expression of HIF1α and GLUT1 decreased. These results indicate that STAT5 regulates IL-2-induced cell proliferation and the metabolic shift to aerobic glycolysis by regulating genes related to energy metabolism. Our results suggest that STAT proteins modulate the metabolic switch in cervical cancer cells to attend to their high demand of energy required for cell growth and proliferation.

The Role of Mitochondrial Sirtuins (SIRT3, SIRT4 and SIRT5) in Renal Cell Metabolism: Implication for Kidney Diseases.

Kidney diseases, including chronic kidney disease (CKD), diabetic nephropathy, and acute kidney injury (AKI), represent a significant global health burden. The kidneys are metabolically very active organs demanding a large amount of ATP. They are composed of highly specialized cell types in the glomerulus and subsequent tubular compartments which fine-tune metabolism to meet their numerous and diverse functions. Defective renal cell metabolism, including altered fatty acid oxidation or glycolysis, has been linked to both AKI and CKD. Mitochondria play a vital role in renal metabolism, and emerging research has identified mitochondrial sirtuins (SIRT3, SIRT4 and SIRT5) as key regulators of renal cell metabolic adaptation, especially SIRT3. Sirtuins belong to an evolutionarily conserved family of mainly NAD+-dependent deacetylases, deacylases, and ADP-ribosyl transferases. Their dependence on NAD+, used as a co-substrate, directly links their enzymatic activity to the metabolic status of the cell. In the kidney, SIRT3 has been described to play crucial roles in the regulation of mitochondrial function, and the antioxidative and antifibrotic response. SIRT3 has been found to be constantly downregulated in renal diseases. Genetic or pharmacologic upregulation of SIRT3 has also been associated with beneficial renal outcomes. Importantly, experimental pieces of evidence suggest that SIRT3 may act as an important energy sensor in renal cells by regulating the activity of key enzymes involved in metabolic adaptation. Activation of SIRT3 may thus represent an interesting strategy to ameliorate renal cell energetics. In this review, we discuss the roles of SIRT3 in lipid and glucose metabolism and in mediating a metabolic switch in a physiological and pathological context. Moreover, we highlight the emerging significance of other mitochondrial sirtuins, SIRT4 and SIRT5, in renal metabolism. Understanding the role of mitochondrial sirtuins in kidney diseases may also open new avenues for innovative and efficient therapeutic interventions and ultimately improve the management of renal injuries.

Why Bufo gargarizans tadpoles grow bigger in Pb-contaminated environments? The gut microbiota matter.

The impacts of lead/Pb2+ on ecosystems have received widespread attention. Growth suppression is a major toxic effect of Pb compounds on aquatic animals, however, some studies have also reported their growth-promoting effects. These complex outcomes may be explained by anions that accompany Pb2+ or by the multiple toxic mechanisms/pathways of Pb2+. To examine these hypotheses, we tested how Bufo gargarizans tadpoles responded to Pb(NO3)2 (100 and 200 µg/L Pb2+) using transcriptomics and microbiomics, with NaNO3 and blank groups as controls. Tadpoles exposed to Pb(NO3)2 showed delayed development while increased somatic growth in a dose-dependent manner, which can be attributed to the effects of NO3- and Pb2+, respectively. Tadpole transcriptomics revealed that exposure to NO3- downregulated the MAPK pathway at transcriptional level, explaining the development-suppressing effect of NO3-; while Pb2+ upregulated the transcription of detoxification pathways (e.g., xenobiotics metabolism by cytochrome P450 and glutathione metabolism), indicating cellular stress and thus contradicting the growth advantage of Pb2+-exposed tadpoles. Pb2+ exposure changed the tadpole gut microbiota drastically, characterized by increased polysaccharides and carbohydrate utilization while decreased fatty acid and amino acid consumption according to microbial functional analysis. Similar gut microbial variations were observed in field-collected tadpoles from different Pb2+ environments. This metabolic shift in gut microbiota likely improved the overall food utilization efficiency and increased the allocation of fatty acids and amino acids to the host, explaining the growth advantage of Pb2+-exposed tadpoles. In summary, our results suggest multiple toxic pathways of Pb2+, and the gut microbiota may affect the pollution outcomes on animals.

NMR Metabolomics Assessment of Osteogenic Differentiation of Adipose-Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

This Article presents, for the first time to our knowledge, an untargeted nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) metabolomic characterization of the polar intracellular metabolic adaptations of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells during osteogenic differentiation. The use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for bone regeneration is a promising alternative to conventional bone grafts, and untargeted metabolomics may unveil novel metabolic information on the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs, allowing their behavior to be understood and monitored/guided toward effective therapies. Our results unveiled statistically relevant changes in the levels of just over 30 identified metabolites, illustrating a highly dynamic process with significant variations throughout the whole 21-day period of osteogenic differentiation, mainly involving amino acid metabolism and protein synthesis; energy metabolism and the roles of glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation; cell membrane metabolism; nucleotide metabolism (including the specific involvement of O-glycosylation intermediates and NAD+); and metabolic players in protective antioxidative mechanisms (such as glutathione and specific amino acids). Different metabolic stages are proposed and are supported by putative biochemical explanations for the metabolite changes observed. This work lays the groundwork for the use of untargeted NMR metabolomics to find potential metabolic markers of osteogenic differentiation efficacy.

Time restricted eating for the prevention of type 2 diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes can potentially be prevented by targeted lifestyle and weight loss interventions. Time restricted eating (TRE) is a form of intermittent fasting that has emerged as a novel diet strategy to reduce body weight and improve glycaemic control. TRE involves eating within a certain window of time (usually 4 to 10 h), and water-fasting for the remaining hours of the day. The purpose of this review is to summarize the effects of TRE on body weight and markers of glycaemic control in human subjects. We also aim to provide mechanistic insights into the effect of TRE on insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance. Results to date reveal that TRE produces mild weight loss (1%-4% from baseline) and energy restriction, when food consumption is restricted to 4-10 h/day. TRE also reduces fasting insulin and improves insulin sensitivity in individuals with prediabetes and those with obesity. Moreover, TRE improves glucose tolerance and decreases serum glucose excursions. The possible mechanisms underlying these benefits include increased autophagic flux, mild elevations in ketone bodies, a reduction in oxidative stress, and the stimulation of ß-cell responsiveness. While these preliminary results offer promise for the use of TRE in the prevention of type 2 diabetes, larger and longer-term human trials will be needed to confirm these findings.

Targeting endothelial cell metabolism in cancerous microenvironment: a new approach for anti-angiogenic therapy.

Anti-angiogenic therapy is a practical approach to managing diseases with increased angiogenesis, such as cancer, maculopathies, and retinopathies. Considering the fundamental gaps in the knowledge of the vital pathways involved in angiogenesis and its inhibition and the insufficient efficiency of existing angiogenesis inhibitors, there is an increasing focus on the emergence of new therapeutic strategies aimed at inhibiting pathological angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is forming a new vascular network from existing vessels; endothelial cells (ECs), vascular lining cells, are the main actors of angiogenesis in physiological or pathological conditions. Switching from a quiescent state to a highly migratory and proliferative state during new vessel formation called "angiogenic switch" is driven by a "metabolic switch" in ECs, angiogenic growth factors, and other signals. As the characteristics of ECs change by altering the surrounding environment, they appear to have a different metabolism in a tumor microenvironment (TME). Therefore, pathological angiogenesis can be inhibited by targeting metabolic pathways. In the current review, we aim to discuss the EC metabolic pathways under normal and TME conditions to verify the suitability of targeting them with novel therapies.

Energy metabolism controls phenotypes by protein efficiency and allocation.

Cells require energy for growth and maintenance and have evolved to have multiple pathways to produce energy in response to varying conditions. A basic question in this context is how cells organize energy metabolism, which is, however, challenging to elucidate due to its complexity, i.e., the energy-producing pathways overlap with each other and even intertwine with biomass formation pathways. Here, we propose a modeling concept that decomposes energy metabolism into biomass formation and ATP-producing pathways. The latter can be further decomposed into a high-yield and a low-yield pathway. This enables independent estimation of protein efficiency for each pathway. With this concept, we modeled energy metabolism for Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae and found that the high-yield pathway shows lower protein efficiency than the low-yield pathway. Taken together with a fixed protein constraint, we predict overflow metabolism in E. coli and the Crabtree effect in S. cerevisiae, meaning that energy metabolism is sufficient to explain the metabolic switches. The static protein constraint is supported by the findings that protein mass of energy metabolism is conserved across conditions based on absolute proteomics data. This also suggests that enzymes may have decreased saturation or activity at low glucose uptake rates. Finally, our analyses point out three ways to improve growth, i.e., increasing protein allocation to energy metabolism, decreasing ATP demand, or increasing activity for key enzymes.

Epithelial cadherin regulates transition between the naïve and primed pluripotent states in mouse embryonic stem cells.

Inhibition of E-cad in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) leads to a switch from LIF-BMP to Activin/Nodal-dependent pluripotency, consistent with transition from a naïve to primed pluripotent phenotype. We have used both genetic ablation and steric inhibition of E-cad function in mESCs to assess alterations to phenotype using quantitative mass spectrometry analysis, network models, and functional assays. Proteomic analyses revealed that one third of detected proteins were altered in E-cad null mESCs (Ecad-/- mESCs) compared to wild type (624 proteins were downregulated and 705 were proteins upregulated). Network pathway analysis and subsequent cellular flux assays confirmed a metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to aerobic glycolysis, specifically through mitochondrial complex III downregulation and hypoxia inducible factor 1a target upregulation. Central to this was the transcriptional coactivator EP300. E-cad is a well-known tumor suppressor, its downregulation during cancer initiation and metastasis can be linked to the metabolic switch known as Warburg effect. This study highlights a phenomena found in both primed pluripotent state and cancer stemness and links it to loss of E-cad. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD012679.

Metabolic regulation of neurodifferentiation in the adult brain.

Understanding the mechanisms behind neurodifferentiation in adults will be an important milestone in our quest to identify treatment strategies for cognitive disorders observed during our natural ageing or disease. It is now clear that the maturation of neural stem cells to neurones, fully integrated into neuronal circuits requires a complete remodelling of cellular metabolism, including switching the cellular energy source. Mitochondria are central for this transition and are increasingly seen as the regulatory hub in defining neural stem cell fate and neurodevelopment. This review explores our current knowledge of metabolism during adult neurodifferentiation.

Transcriptome analyses of liver in newly-hatched chicks during the metabolic perturbation of fasting and re-feeding reveals THRSPA as the key lipogenic transcription factor.

BACKGROUND: The fasting-refeeding perturbation has been used extensively to reveal specific genes and metabolic pathways that control energy metabolism in the chicken. Most global transcriptional scans of the fasting-refeeding response in liver have focused on juvenile chickens that were 1, 2 or 4 weeks old. The present study was aimed at the immediate post-hatch period, in which newly-hatched chicks were subjected to fasting for 4, 24 or 48 h, then refed for 4, 24 or 48 h, and compared with a fully-fed control group at each age (D1-D4). RESULTS: Visual analysis of hepatic gene expression profiles using hierarchical and K-means clustering showed two distinct patterns, genes with higher expression during fasting and depressed expression upon refeeding and those with an opposing pattern of expression, which exhibit very low expression during fasting and more abundant expression with refeeding. Differentially-expressed genes (DEGs), identified from five prominent pair-wise contrasts of fed, fasted and refed conditions, were subjected to Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. This enabled mapping of analysis-ready (AR)-DEGs to canonical and metabolic pathways controlled by distinct gene interaction networks. The largest number of hepatic DEGs was identified by two contrasts: D2FED48h/D2FAST48h (968 genes) and D2FAST48h/D3REFED24h (1198 genes). The major genes acutely depressed by fasting and elevated upon refeeding included ANGTPL, ATPCL, DIO2, FASN, ME1, SCD, PPARG, SREBP2 and THRSPA-a primary lipogenic transcription factor. In contrast, major lipolytic genes were up-regulated by fasting or down-regulated after refeeding, including ALDOB, IL-15, LDHB, LPIN2, NFE2L2, NR3C1, NR0B1, PANK1, PPARA, SERTAD2 and UPP2. CONCLUSIONS: Transcriptional profiling of liver during fasting/re-feeding of newly-hatched chicks revealed several highly-expressed upstream regulators, which enable the metabolic switch from fasted (lipolytic/gluconeogenic) to fed or refed (lipogenic/thermogenic) states. This rapid homeorhetic shift of whole-body metabolism from a catabolic-fasting state to an anabolic-fed state appears precisely orchestrated by a small number of ligand-activated transcription factors that provide either a fasting-lipolytic state (PPARA, NR3C1, NFE2L2, SERTAD2, FOX01, NR0B1, RXR) or a fully-fed and refed lipogenic/thermogenic state (THRSPA, SREBF2, PPARG, PPARD, JUN, ATF3, CTNNB1). THRSPA has emerged as the key transcriptional regulator that drives lipogenesis and thermogenesis in hatchling chicks, as shown here in fed and re-fed states.

Translational large animal model of hibernating myocardium: characterization by serial multimodal imaging.

Nonrevascularizable coronary artery disease is a frequent cause of hibernating myocardium leading to heart failure (HF). Currently, there is a paucity of therapeutic options for patients with this condition. There is a lack of animal models resembling clinical features of hibernating myocardium. Here we present a large animal model of hibernating myocardium characterized by serial multimodality imaging. Yucatan minipigs underwent a surgical casein ameroid implant around the proximal left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD), resulting in a progressive obstruction of the vessel. Pigs underwent serial multimodality imaging including invasive coronary angiography, cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), and hybrid 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT). A total of 43 pigs were operated on and were followed for 120 ± 37 days with monthly multimodality imaging. 24 pigs (56%) died during the follow-up. Severe LAD luminal stenosis was documented in all survivors. In the group of 19 long-term survivors, 17 (90%) developed left ventricular systolic dysfunction [median LVEF of 35% (IQR 32.5-40.5%)]. In 17/17, at-risk territory was viable on CMR and 14 showed an increased glucose uptake in the at-risk myocardium on 18FDG-PET/CT. The present pig model resembles most of the human hibernated myocardium characteristics and associated heart failure (systolic dysfunction, viable myocardium, and metabolic switch to glucose). This human-like model might be used to test novel interventions for nonrevascularizable coronary artery disease and ischemia heart failure as a previous stage to clinical trials.

Genome-scale modeling for Bacillus coagulans to understand the metabolic characteristics.

Lactic acid is widely used in many industries, especially in the production of poly-lactic acid. Bacillus coagulans is a promising lactic acid producer in industrial fermentation due to its thermophilic property. In this study, we developed the first genome-scale metabolic model (GEM) of B. coagulans iBag597, together with an enzyme-constrained model ec-iBag597. We measured strain-specific biomass composition and integrated the data into a biomass equation. Then, we validated iBag597 against experimental data generated in this study, including amino acid requirements and carbon source utilization, showing that simulations were generally consistent with the experimental results. Subsequently, we carried out chemostats to investigate the effects of specific growth rate and culture pH on metabolism of B. coagulans. Meanwhile, we used iBag597 to estimate the intracellular metabolic fluxes for those conditions. The results showed that B. coagulans was capable of generating ATP via multiple pathways, and switched among them in response to various conditions. With ec-iBag597, we estimated the protein cost and protein efficiency for each ATP-producing pathway to investigate the switches. Our models pave the way for systems biology of B. coagulans, and our findings suggest that maintaining a proper growth rate and selecting an optimal pH are beneficial for lactate fermentation.

Remarkable metabolic reorganization and altered metabolic requirements in frog metamorphic climax.

BACKGROUND: Metamorphic climax is the crucial stage of amphibian metamorphosis responsible for the morphological and functional changes necessary for transition to a terrestrial habitat. This developmental period is sensitive to environmental changes and pollution. Understanding its metabolic basis and requirements is significant for ecological and toxicological research. Rana omeimontis tadpoles are a useful model for investigating this stage as their liver is involved in both metabolic regulation and fat storage. RESULTS: We used a combined approach of transcriptomics and metabolomics to study the metabolic reorganization during natural and T3-driven metamorphic climax in the liver and tail of Rana omeimontis tadpoles. The metabolic flux from the apoptotic tail replaced hepatic fat storage as metabolic fuel, resulting in increased hepatic amino acid and fat levels. In the liver, amino acid catabolism (transamination and urea cycle) was upregulated along with energy metabolism (TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation), while the carbohydrate and lipid catabolism (glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), and ß-oxidation) decreased. The hepatic glycogen phosphorylation and gluconeogenesis were upregulated, and the carbohydrate flux was used for synthesis of glycan units (e.g., UDP-glucuronate). In the tail, glycolysis, ß-oxidation, and transamination were all downregulated, accompanied by synchronous downregulation of energy production and consumption. Glycogenolysis was maintained in the tail, and the carbohydrate flux likely flowed into both PPP and the synthesis of glycan units (e.g., UDP-glucuronate and UDP-glucosamine). Fatty acid elongation and desaturation, as well as the synthesis of bioactive lipid (e.g., prostaglandins) were encouraged in the tail during metamorphic climax. Protein synthesis was downregulated in both the liver and tail. The significance of these metabolic adjustments and their potential regulation mechanism are discussed. CONCLUSION: The energic strategy and anabolic requirements during metamorphic climax were revealed at the molecular level. Amino acid made an increased contribution to energy metabolism during metamorphic climax. Carbohydrate anabolism was essential for the body construction of the froglets. The tail was critical in anabolism including synthesizing bioactive metabolites. These findings increase our understanding of amphibian metamorphosis and provide background information for ecological, evolutionary, conservation, and developmental studies of amphibians.

Application of inorganic phosphate limitation to efficient isoprene production in Pantoea ananatis.

AIMS: Establishment of an efficient isoprene fermentation process by adopting inorganic phosphate limitation as the trigger to direct metabolic flux to the isoprene synthetic pathway. METHODS AND RESULTS: We constructed isoprene-producing strains of Pantoea ananatis (a member of the Enterobacteriaceae family) by integrating a heterologous mevalonate pathway and a metabolic switch that senses external inorganic phosphate (Pi) levels. This metabolic switch enabled dual-phase isoprene production, where the initial cell growth phase under Pi-saturating conditions was uncoupled from the subsequent isoprene production phase under Pi-limiting conditions. In fed-batch fermentation using our best strain (SWITCH-PphoC/pIspSM) in a 1-l bioreactor, isoprene concentration in the off-gas was maintained between 300 and 460 ppm during the production phase and at 20 ppm during the cell growth phase, respectively. The strain SWITCH-PphoC/pIspSM produced totally 2·5 g l-1 of isoprene from glucose with a 1·8% volumetric yield in 48 h. CONCLUSIONS: This proof-of-concept study demonstrated that our Pi-dependent dual-phase production system using a P. ananatis strain as a producer has potential for industrial-scale isoprene fermentation. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This Pi-dependent dual-phase fermentation process could be an attractive and economically viable option for the production of various commercially valuable isoprenoids.