Cost-effectiveness of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry plus antiresorptive treatment in Australian women with breast cancer who receive aromatase inhibitors.

Postmenopausal women with breast cancer on aromatase inhibitor (AI) treatment are at increased risk of bone mineral density loss, which may lead to minimal trauma fractures. We examined the cost-effectiveness of dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) with antiresorptive (AR) therapy compared with fracture risk assessment, lifestyle advice, and vitamin supplementation. We used a hypothetical Markov cohort model of lifetime duration for 60-year-old women with early stage breast cancer receiving AIs. The data to inform the model came from medical literature, epidemiological reports, and costing data sets. Two eligibility scenarios for AR therapy were considered: (A) osteoporosis and (B) osteopenia or osteoporosis. The main outcomes were incremental cost per quality-adjusted life years gained and cumulative fractures per 1000 women, calculated relative to the comparator. Key aspects of the model were explored in sensitivity analyses. Due to relatively low effectiveness gains, the outcomes were primarily driven by the costs. The incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year gained was A$47,556 and A$253,000 for scenarios A and B, respectively. The numbers of fractures avoided were 56 and 77 per 1000 women, respectively. The results were most sensitive to the initial probability of osteoporosis, baseline risk of fracture, and cohort starting age. Compared with risk assessment and lifestyle advice only, a DXA scan followed by an AR treatment is potentially cost-effective for women aged 60 and over undergoing AI therapy for early breast cancer. However, the number of fractures averted through this intervention is small.

Evaluation and comparison of safety, convenience and cost of administering intravenous pamidronate infusions to children in the home and ambulatory care settings.

The use of bisphosphonates in children to treat low bone mineral density has increased. Safety and efficacy of pamidronate has been previously demonstrated. However, little research has been done on pamidronate infusion in the home health setting for patients with metabolic bone disease. Data were collected via a survey to assess satisfaction and convenience of infusions. Adverse events were measured by collecting calcium levels before and after infusions. Infusion costs were estimated from the standard orders from one home health agency and our infusion center. We found no difference in the rates of hypocalcemia between the two groups. The survey results showed high satisfaction for both groups, with higher scores in the home health group for convenience and stress. Home health infusions showed lower cost and less absenteeism from school and work. Home health-based pamidronate infusion appears to be safe, less expensive, and is associated with high patient satisfaction.

[Kidney and bone update : the 5-year history and future of CKD-MBD. Pharmacoeconomics in the field of CKD-MBD].

Pharmacoeconomics (PE) , which contributes to the decisions on the population rather than the patient level such as policy making, provides us with the cost and value of a given drug. Recent Japanese PE studies in the field of CKD-MBD are reviewed in this manuscript. Lanthnum carbonate is not cost effective as a first-line phosphate binder, while cost effective as a second-line drug added on conventional treatments for those with serum phosphate >6.0 mg/dL, as shown in incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $34,896. Cinacalcet hydrochloride was found to be cost effective only for those who cannot undergo parathyroidectomy. Taking these findings into account, when cinacalcet have to be used, we should give priority to calcium containing phosphate binders rather than expensive sevelamer or lanthanum from the viewpoint of the medical cost. Moreover, the doses of cinacalcet should be minimized by administering inexpensive vitamin D concomitantly.

The health and economic consequences of osteopenia- and osteoporosis-attributable hip fractures in Germany: estimation for 2002 and projection until 2050.

SUMMARY: The health and economic burden of osteopenia- and osteoporosis-attributable hip fractures (OHF) in Germany was estimated for 2002 and projected until 2050. We found 108,341 OHF resulting in 2,998 million Euros cost, which will more than double by the year 2050, calling for improvement and development of prevention strategies for OHF. INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to estimate the health impact and the societal costs of OHF in Germany in the year 2002 and to extrapolate these estimates to the years 2020 and 2050. METHODS: We estimated OHF-attributable deaths, years of potential life lost (YPLL) and quality-adjusted life years lost (QALYs) using attributable fractions. Direct costs for acute treatment, rehabilitation, nursing care, non-medical costs and indirect costs for sickness absence, early retirement and mortality were estimated. All estimates were extrapolated to 2020 and 2050 using an estimation of future population composition and life expectancy. RESULTS: We found 108,341 OHF resulting in 3,485 deaths, 22,724 YPLL, 114,058 QALYs, 2,736 millions of Euros direct cost and 262 millions of Euros indirect costs. Projection to 2020 showed corresponding increases of 44%, 62%, 56%, 49%, 47% and 33%, whereas the projection to 2050 resulted in changes of 128%, 215%, 196%, 152%, 138% and 90%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: OHF have considerable impact on health and direct costs in the elderly. Both may strongly increase in future decades due to demographic changes, calling for improvement and development of effective strategies for preventing and dealing with OHF.

[Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and bone. Control of CKD-MBD from the viewpoint of the medical cost].

Pharmacoeconomics (PE) , which contribute to the decisions on the population rather than the patient level such as policy making, provides us with the cost and value of a given drug. In the midst of terrible economic climate, medications for CKD-MBD are reviewed from the viewpoint of PE in this manuscript. DCOR trial is the only study in maintenance hemodialysis patients with mortality as a primary endpoint, which compared expensive sevelamer hydrochloride and economical calcium containing phosphate binders, showing no difference in mortality between these drugs. This means that calcium containing phosphate binders are more cost-effective. Cost utility analysis from the United States revealed that parathyroidectomy became more cost-effective at 16 months than cinacalcet hydrochloride, which theoretically have to be continued throughout life. The effect of active vitamin D on mortality is controversial, since there has not been any prospective randomized controlled trial. Taking these findings into account, cinacalcet should be indicated only in those patients who have secondary hyperparathyroidism refractory to conventional therapy and for whom parathyroidectomy is not a good indication. Furthermore, when cinacalcet have to be used, we should give priority to calcium containing phosphate binders rather than expensive sevelamer from the viewpoint of the medical cost. Moreover, the doses of cinacalcet should be minimized by administering inexpensive vitamin D concomitantly.

The Cost of Osteoporosis, Osteopenia, and Associated Fractures in Australia in 2017.

Osteoporosis and osteopenia are increasingly prevalent conditions among older adults. Not only do the fractures associated with poor bone health have significant health consequences for the individual, but also their economic impact is placing increasing financial burden on governments and society. This study aimed to determine the direct economic cost of osteoporosis, osteopenia, and fractures among Australians aged 50 years and older in 2017. This study uses previous Australian data on the incidence and prevalence of osteoporosis and osteopenia together with recent Australian data on health service utilization after fracture to provide an estimate of the economic burden of osteoporosis. A bottom-up costing approach was used to determine the average direct health care and non-health care total costs of a fracture, as well as the average community health service costs of managing individuals with osteoporosis or osteopenia. The total direct cost of osteoporosis in Australia in 2017 was estimated to be $3.44 billion (AUD 2017, USD 2.77 billion). Treatment of fractures accounted for 68% of total direct costs, and non-fracture management of osteoporosis accounted for 32%. Hip fractures accounted for the highest proportion (43%) of the total direct cost of fractures, although fractures at "other" sites accounted for 38.5%. Fractures among individuals aged 70 years and older accounted for 74% of the direct costs (55% and 19% in women and men, respectively). Fracture costs in those with osteopenia accounted for 50% of direct fracture treatment costs. This up-to-date cost analysis estimated that costs in 2017 were three times higher than in 2007. These estimates will aid clinicians, policy makers, researchers, and health care organizations to acknowledge the economic importance of reducing osteoporosis-related fractures and associated costs. This provides a strong public health case to promote bone health that will assist in reducing future fracture-related costs. © 2018 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Cost-effectiveness of preventative therapies for postmenopausal women with osteopenia.

BACKGROUND: Limited data are available regarding the cost-effectiveness of preventative therapies for postmenopausal women with osteopenia. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of raloxifene, alendronate and conservative care in this population. METHODS: We developed a microsimulation model to assess the incremental cost and effectiveness of raloxifene and alendronate relative to conservative care. We assumed a societal perspective and a lifetime time horizon. We examined clinical scenarios involving postmenopausal women from 55 to 75 years of age with bone mineral density T-scores ranging from -1.0 to -2.4. Modeled health events included vertebral and nonvertebral fractures, invasive breast cancer, and venous thromboembolism (VTE). Raloxifene and alendronate were assumed to reduce the incidence of vertebral but not nonvertebral fractures; raloxifene was assumed to decrease the incidence of breast cancer and increase the incidence of VTEs. Cost-effectiveness is reported in $/QALYs gained. RESULTS: For women 55 to 60 years of age with a T-score of -1.8, raloxifene cost approximately $50,000/QALY gained relative to conservative care. Raloxifene was less cost-effective for women 65 and older. At all ages, alendronate was both more expensive and less effective than raloxifene. In most clinical scenarios, raloxifene conferred a greater benefit (in QALYs) from prevention of invasive breast cancer than from fracture prevention. Results were most sensitive to the population's underlying risk of fracture and breast cancer, assumed efficacy and costs of treatment, and the discount rate. CONCLUSION: For 55 and 60 year old women with osteopenia, treatment with raloxifene compares favorably to interventions accepted as cost-effective.

Association of Radiologic Indicators of Frailty With 1-Year Mortality in Older Trauma Patients: Opportunistic Screening for Sarcopenia and Osteopenia.

Importance: Assessment of physical frailty in older trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit is often not feasible using traditional frailty assessment instruments. The use of opportunistic computed tomography (CT) scans to assess sarcopenia and osteopenia as indicators of underlying frailty may provide complementary prognostic information on long-term outcomes. Objective: To determine whether sarcopenia and/or osteopenia are associated with 1-year mortality in an older trauma patient population. Design, Setting, and Participants: A retrospective cohort constructed from a state trauma registry was linked to the statewide death registry and Comprehensive Hospital Abstract Reporting System for readmission data analyses. Admission abdominopelvic CT scans from patients 65 years and older admitted to the intensive care unit of a single level I trauma center between January 2011 and May 2014 were analyzed to identify patients with sarcopenia and/or osteopenia. Patients with a head Injury Severity Score of 3 or greater, an out-of-state address, or inadequate CT imaging or who died within 24 hours of admission were excluded. Exposures: Sarcopenia and/or osteopenia, assessed via total cross-sectional muscle area and bone density at the L3 vertebral level, compared with a group with no sarcopenia or osteopenia. Main Outcomes and Measures: One-year all-cause mortality. Secondary outcomes included 30-day all-cause mortality, 30-day readmission, hospital length of stay, hospital cost, and discharge disposition. Results: Of the 450 patients included in the study, 269 (59.8%) were male and 394 (87.6%) were white. The cohort was split into 4 groups: 74 were retrospectively diagnosed with both sarcopenia and osteopenia, 167 with sarcopenia only, 48 with osteopenia only, and 161 with no radiologic indicators. Among the 408 who survived to discharge, sarcopenia and osteopenia were associated with higher risks of 1-year mortality alone and in combination. After adjustment, the hazard ratio was 9.4 (95% CI, 1.2-75.4; P = .03) for sarcopenia and osteopenia, 10.3 (95% CI, 1.3-78.8; P = .03) for sarcopenia, and 11.9 (95% CI, 1.3-107.4; P = .03) for osteopenia. Conclusions and Relevance: More than half of older trauma patients in this study had sarcopenia, osteopenia, or both. Each factor was independently associated with increased 1-year mortality. Given the prevalent use of abdominopelvic CT in trauma centers, opportunistic screening for radiologic indicators of frailty provides an additional tool for early identification of older trauma patients at high risk for poor outcomes, with the potential for targeted interventions.

Psychometric evaluation of the Osteoporosis Patient Treatment Satisfaction Questionnaire (OPSAT-Q), a novel measure to assess satisfaction with bisphosphonate treatment in postmenopausal women.

BACKGROUND: The Osteoporosis Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire (OPSAT-Q) is a new measure of patient satisfaction with bisphosphonate treatment for osteoporosis. The objective of this study was to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of the OPSAT-Q. METHODS: The OPSAT-Q contains 16 items in four subscales: Convenience, Confidence with Daily Activities, Side Effects, and Overall Satisfaction. All four subscale scores and an overall composite satisfaction score (CSS) can be computed. The OPSAT-Q, Osteoporosis Targeted Quality of Life (OPTQoL), and sociodemographic/clinical questionnaires, including 3 global items on convenience, functioning and side effects, were self-administered to women with osteoporosis or osteopenia recruited from four US clinics. Analyses included item and scale performance, internal consistency reliability, reproducibility, and construct validity. Reproducibility was measured using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) via a follow-up questionnaire completed by participants 2 weeks post baseline. RESULTS: 104 women with a mean age of 65.1 years participated. The majority were Caucasian (64.4%), living with someone (74%), and not currently employed (58.7%). 73% had osteoporosis and 27% had osteopenia. 80% were taking weekly bisphosphonates and 18% were taking daily medication (2% missing data). On a scale of 0-100, individual patient subscale scores ranged from 17 to 100 and CSS scores ranged from 44 to 100. All scores showed acceptable internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha > 0.70) (range 0.72 to 0.89). Reproducibility ranged from 0.62 (Daily Activities) to 0.79 (Side Effects) for the subscales; reproducibility for the CSS was 0.81. Significant correlations were found between the OPSAT-Q subscales and conceptually similar global measures (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The findings from this study confirm the validity and reliability of the OPSAT-Q and support the proposed composition of four subscales and a composite score. They also support the use of the OPSAT-Q to examine the impact of bisphosphonate dosing frequency on patient satisfaction.

Prescription drug therapies for prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the changes in bone mass with age in women and men, explain the physiology and pathophysiology of the bone remodeling process, identify the targets for prescription osteoporosis drugs in this process, and provide details about the uses, efficacy, safety, and economics of prescription drug therapies for osteoporosis prevention and treatment. BACKGROUND: Preventing accelerated bone loss and decreasing age-related decreases in bone density are the primary goals of prescription drug therapy for osteoporosis. Bisphosphonates are the drugs of choice for preventing and treating postmenopausal osteoporosis. Alternatives for patients who cannot take bisphosphonates include raloxifene and calcitonin salmon. SUMMARY: Menopause is accompanied by a rapid loss in bone mass that is followed by annual losses due to aging in women, which are similar to age-related bone mass decreases in men. Most prescription drug therapies for osteoporosis prevention or treatment reduce bone resorption by inhibiting osteoclast activation and activity, with only one medication class able to increase bone formation by stimulating osteoblasts. Denosumab, an investigational monoclonal antibody that inhibits nuclear factor kB ligand, would be a new class of anti-resorptive medications. Bisphosphonates currently are the drugs of choice for preventing and treating osteoporosis, with 7- and 10-year safety data available for risedronate and alendronate, respectively. Weekly and monthly regimens of bisphosphonates improve patient acceptance. Recently, an injectable form of ibandronate received U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval for once every 3 months administration. Raloxifene and calcitonin salmon are alternatives for patients who cannot take bisphosphonates because of contraindications or adverse effects. Teriparatide, a recombinant parathyroid hormone fragment, not only increases bone mineral density but also increases bone connectivity. CONCLUSIONS: Osteoporosis medications are usually safe, especially if used correctly with proper patient education. Treating osteopenia has not been found to be cost effective in women. However, obtaining a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scan and treating osteoporosis has resulted in cost savings in senior women living in community and nursing home residences. Pharmacists have multiple opportunities for preventing and treating osteoporosis.

Trends of elevated parathormone serum titers in hemodialysis patients on intensive therapy for bone disease: a multicenter study.

To determine the prevalence of controlled parathyroid hormone (PTH) serum levels with intensified therapy for chronic kidney disease mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) in the dialysis population, we studied 563 chronic hemodialysis patients recruited from three different dialysis centers from three different major cities in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The trend of the routine monthly chemistries related to CKD-MBD was evaluated besides the whole-molecule PTH serum levels over 28 months (January 2011 to April 2013). The cost ratios of the medications to the estimated dialysis total cost were calculated. There were 323 (57.4%) males in the study, and the mean age of the patients was 50.2±15.2 years; 371 (65.9%) patients were initiated on dialysis before 2011. The causes of the original kidney disease included diabetes mellitus in 163 (29%) patients. Parathyroidectomy was performed in 23 (4.1%) patients and only six (23%) patients underwent the operation during the study period; most of the parathyroidectomies (69%) were performed before 2011. The trend of the medians of monthly serum levels of calcium, phosphorus, albumin, bicarbonate, alkaline phosphatase, serum levels of PTH and vitamin D25 assays showed better control of the levels with time. The added cost of cinacalcet was more significant than the other drugs, including vitamin D and phosphate binders, but the cost was minimal in comparison with the whole dialysis bill. The ratios of the discontinuation rates to the total patient-months of treatment for the different drugs were in the range of 3-4% and mostly due to transient overdosing of medications. We conclude that the trends of the median serum levels of PTH and related minerals in the CKD patients in our dialysis patients suggested a good inclination toward control and prevention of the vascular calcifications prevalent in the CKD-MBD. The popularity of use of new drugs such as cinacalcet is promising and does not seem to add much to the current out-patient cost of chronic dialysis.

Health care costs of osteopenia, osteoporosis, and fragility fractures in Mexico.

UNLABELLED: Different sources were used to estimate the 2010 health care costs of managing low bone density (osteopenia/osteoporosis) plus caring fragility fractures in Mexico at 411 million USD. Figures are projected to rise 42 % by 2020. Preventive and timely interventions are required to decrease the financial burden of these entities. INTRODUCTION: Osteopenia, osteoporosis, and fragility fractures (FF) are a public health concern. The study purpose was to estimate the health care costs of these conditions in Mexico during 2010 and project them to 2015 and 2020. METHODS: Prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis was derived from international data. The Mexican version of FRAX® algorithm was used to assess risk for a major FF (hip, clinical spine, forearm, and proximal humerus) in osteopenic and osteoporotic population aged over 40 years. The estimates were applied to national demographic projections. Only direct medical costs composed by routine non-pharmacological management of osteopenia/osteoporosis besides the costs owing to medical care of major FF were considered into the analysis. Resource use for managing osteopenia/osteoporosis was defined from local sources (clinical practice guidelines, published literature, and expert opinion); unit costs were gathered from official lists. Costs for medical care of FF were based on diagnosis-related groups. RESULTS: In population aged ≥40 years, prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis in 2010 was 32.8 and 8 %, respectively. A total of 75,763 FF occurred that year. Costs of managing osteopenia and osteoporosis were 154.9 million USD, whereas medical costs due to FF reached 256.2 million USD. Therefore, the annual health care costs of these entities in 2010 were 411 million USD. Total costs will be 19.2 % higher in 2015, and by 2020, the figures will have increased by 41.7 %. CONCLUSIONS: Low bone density entails substantial epidemiological and financial burden in Mexico, and their impact will grow considerably during the next years.

Cost-effectiveness of alendronate for the treatment of osteopenic postmenopausal women in Japan.

Many postmenopausal women have osteopenia, a condition characterized by loss of bone mineral density (BMD) that is not as severe as in osteoporosis. The objective of this study was to estimate the cost-effectiveness of alendronate to prevent fractures in osteopenic postmenopausal women without a history of fracture in Japan. An individual simulation model was developed to predict lifetime costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) of 5 years of preventive alendronate therapy versus no preventive therapy. The risk of hip and vertebral fracture associated with age and BMD was derived from epidemiologic studies in Japan. We ran the model with different combinations of age (65, 70, and 75 years), BMD (70%, 75%, and 80% of young adult mean [YAM]), and additional clinical risk factors. For 70-year-old women with a BMD of 70% of the YAM having one of the following risk factors: a family history of hip fracture, high alcohol intake, or current smoking, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of alendronate was $92,937, $126,251, and $129,067 per QALY, respectively. These results were sensitive to age, BMD, and number of clinical risk factors. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis for the base case showed that in the presence of one, two, and three risk factors, alendronate was cost-effective in 0.2% to 2.6%, 13.1% to 56.1%, and 99.1% of the simulations, respectively, if society is willing to pay $50,000 per QALY. Additional analysis indicated that alendronate can be a good value in osteopenic women if the 10-year probability for a osteoporotic hip or vertebral fracture is more than 26.2%. Our results indicate that whether to treat osteopenia with alendronate should be determined on the basis of age, BMD, and number of clinical risk factors in terms of cost-effectiveness.

Cost effectiveness of fracture prevention in postmenopausal women who receive aromatase inhibitors for early breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) increase the risk of osteoporosis and related fractures in postmenopausal women who receive adjuvant AIs for hormone receptor (HR) -positive early breast cancer (EBC). We compared the cost effectiveness of alternative screening and treatment strategies for fracture prevention. METHODS: We developed a Markov state transition model to simulate clinical practice and outcomes in a hypothetical cohort of women age 60 years with HR-positive EBC starting a 5-year course of AI therapy after primary surgery for breast cancer. Outcomes were quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), lifetime cost, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). We compared the following strategies: no intervention; one-time bone mineral density (BMD) screening and selective bisphosphonate therapy in women with osteoporosis or osteopenia; annual BMD screening and selective bisphosphonate therapy in women with osteoporosis or osteopenia; and universal bisphosphonate therapy. RESULTS: ICERs for annual BMD screening followed by oral bisphosphonates for those with osteoporosis, annual BMD screening followed by oral bisphosphonates for those with osteopenia, and universal treatment with oral bisphosphonates were $87,300, $129,300, and $283,600 per QALY gained, respectively. One-time BMD screening followed by oral bisphosphonates for those with osteoporosis or osteopenia was dominated. Our results were sensitive to age at the initiation of AI therapy, type of bisphosphonates, post-treatment residual effect of bisphosphonates, and a potential adjuvant benefit of intravenous bisphosphonates. CONCLUSION: In postmenopausal women receiving adjuvant AIs for HR-positive EBC, a policy of baseline and annual BMD screening followed by selective treatment with oral bisphosphonates for those diagnosed with osteoporosis is a cost-effective use of societal resources.

Cost-effectiveness of zoledronic acid in the management of skeletal metastases in patients with lung cancer in France, Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the United kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Zoledronic acid (ZOL) significantly reduces the risk of new skeletal-related events (SREs) in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) who have bone metastases. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the cost and cost-effectiveness of ZOL in the management of skeletal metastases in this population across 5 European countries (France, Germany, United Kingdom, Portugal, and the Netherlands) from the perspective of national health care. METHODS: This cost-effectiveness analysis was based on a subset of patients with NSCLC who were enrolled in a Phase III trial of patients with bone metastases secondary to a variety of solid tumors. In this trial, patients were randomized to receive ZOL or placebo every 3 weeks for up to 21 months. Survival, SRE incidence, and number of infusions administered were derived from the clinical trial. Costs of SREs were estimated using hospital Diagnosis Related Group tariffs and published data. Drug, drug administration, and supply costs were obtained from published and internet sources. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were estimated based on the published utilities and modeled survival and frequency of SREs. Uncertainty surrounding outcomes was addressed via univariate and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. RESULTS: Compared with patients receiving placebo (n = 120), patients receiving ZOL (n = 124) experienced an estimated 0.79 fewer SREs and gained an estimated 0.02 QALYs. ZOL use in patients with NSCLC and bone metastases was associated with a reduction in SRE costs (ranging from €1547 to €1893 [2007-2008 €], depending on the country). After adding drug and drug administration costs, ZOL use resulted in a net savings of €288 per patient in Germany, €209 in the United Kingdom, and €113 in Portugal. In France and the Netherlands, costs increased (€17 and €178, respectively), but the costs per QALY gained were low (€786 and €8278, respectively). In univariate sensitivity analyses, the cost per QALY for ZOL versus placebo was ≤€50,000 for all scenarios tested. The results were most sensitive to assumptions regarding survival, number of ZOL infusions, and the costs of SREs. The probabilistic sensitivity analysis indicated that ZOL cost ≤€50,000 per QALY in 65% to 83% of model simulations (depending on country). However, some degree of uncertainty remained as the 95th percentile of cost per QALY was high. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis is subject to the usual limitations of cost-effectiveness models, which combine assumptions and data from multiple sources. Nevertheless, based on the assumptions used herein, the present model suggests that ZOL increases QALYs and is cost saving and/or cost effective compared with placebo in patients with NSCLC in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Portugal, and the Netherlands.