Scanning electron microscopy in analysis of urinary stones.

Urolithiasis is a frequent and in many cases serious disease. Proper analysis of kidney stone composition is crucial for appropriate treatment and prevention of disease recurrence. In this work, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy was applied for a study of 30 samples covering the most common types of human kidney stones. The results are analyzed and evaluated in terms of applicability of the method for both routine kidney stone analysis as well as collecting of specific data. The method provides complex information about studied samples including morphology of the stones and of the present crystals or their aggregates. It also brings information on elemental composition of the phases. After application of standardization, quantitative microanalysis with detection limits of 400 ppm (Mg, P, S, Cl, K, Ca), 500 ppm (Na) and 1200 ppm (F) was obtained. Compositional mapping with EDS shows the elemental distribution within a sample. This study demonstrated that information on morphology and chemistry acquired by these methods was highly reliable for identification of phases, even when present in small amounts. It provided information on kidney stone structure, relationships between phases, major and minor element content, and variations in chemical composition related to the growth of the stones. SEM represents a powerful tool in urinary stone analysis, since a single facility can produce a wide spectrum of information. It can be suggested as a basic method used for routine urinary stone identification, whilst bringing additional detailed information that cannot be obtained by other methods.

[Peculiarities morphology and structure of the uroliths].

THE AIM: According to statistical data of a number of the countries, have an urolithic disease from 5% to 15% of the population today. A recurrence arises at 50-85% of patients. The purpose of this work was complex studying of morphology, structure, mineral structure of urolit, identification of regularities of their formation, establishment of interrelation between mineral and organic matter in structure of urolit. MATERIALS: the urinary stones from the urology departments of hospitals and clinics of the Tomsk region (Russia). METHOD: s: crystallomorphological (the study of the surface morphology of uroliths binocular and trinocular microscopes); polarizing optical (study of the mineral composition of uroliths on a polarizing microscope); x-ray crystallography (the study of spectral composition on the apparatus DRON-3); electron microscopic (study of the peculiarities of morphology of crystals in an electron microscope). RESULTS: On features of morphology of a surface four types of urolit are allocated: druzovidny, sferolitovy, combined, korallovidny. Structural kinds of urolit: crystal and granular, dendritovidny, combined, rhythmic - zone. In structure of urolit the following types of rhythms are established: zone, granular, combined. In the urolitakh with rhythmic - the zone structure allocated elements of their building: kernel, layer, zone, rhythm. A mineral part of uric stones is presented by the crystals belonging to the classes: oxalates, phosphates, urat . SUMMARY: The peculiarities of the morphology of the selected four types of uroliths: druzoid, with, combined, coral. Structural variations uroliths: crystal-grained Shelly, dendritic, combined, rhythmically zoned. In the structure of uroliths, the following types of rhythms: zoned, granular, combined. In urolith with rhythmically zoned structure selected elements of their structure: core, layer, area, rhythm. DISCUSSION: Morphological and structural features of the structure of urolites, especially the presence of rhythmic zoning, due to the alternation of layers of mineral and organic matter, indicate a close relationship between the living organism and the organo-mineral aggregate in the human urinary system. With a high degree of confidence we can talk about the symbiosis of living and mineral matter in the human body; as a result of this symbiosis, organic-mineral formations are formed, which are often the further cause of some diseases (for example, urolithiasis and cholelithiasis). CONCLUSION: The complex research of uric stones allows to obtain important information on their structure, structure and features of morphology. Morphological and structural features of the structure of urolit, in particular existence of the rhythmic zonality caused by alternation of layers of mineral and organic matter demonstrate close interrelation between a live organism and the organo-mineral unit in an urinary system of the person.

[The role of the Randalls plaques in the pathogenesis of recurrent urolitasis].

The aim of the work was to present current concept of the pathogenesis of urolithiasis. Treatment and prevention of this disease a challenging issue. The article presents basic information about Randalls plaques that are described as calcium salt deposits on the surface of the transitional cell epithelium. The cause of Randalls plaques was the subject of many studies and is still not completely clear. To date, we can state that the deposit formation starts in the pelvicalyceal system and is directly linked to recurrent urolithiasis. The discovery of Randall plaques in the 1940s transformed the conception of stone formation, but there are even more questions about the pathogenesis of urolithiasis. In that respect, we consider it important to analyze the studies on Randalls plaques.

[The study of mineral composition and structure of uroliths in the residents of Tomsk district (Tomsk)].

AIM: To successfully treat and prevent urolithiasis, the composition and structure of uroliths should be examined using modern analytical techniques. For a long time, studies of the biomineral formation in the human body have been conducted exclusively in the field of medicine. The main attention has been paid to the diagnosis and treatment of diseases leading to the occurrence of pathogenic formations. At the same time, it is quite obvious that it is important to have a clear idea about the causes of pathogenic formations, the mechanisms for their further formation, composition and structure. Currently, these issues are widely studied all over the world by mineralogists, biochemists, geo-ecologists using methods of mineralogical analysis. The aim of this work was to determine the content of the elements that make up uroliths. This value should be normalized by the clarks of the noosphere. Studies on the mineral composition and structure of uroliths in the Tomsk region allowed to calculate the content of elements. It turned out that each medical district has its own specific geochemical series, which depends, probably, on natural and technogenic factors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included urolith samples obtained from residents of 4 medical sub-districts of Tomsk district. 100 samples of different mineral composition were studied. Analytical techniques including crystal-morphological, spectral, X-ray structural, instrumental neutron-activation, electron microscopic analyses were used to investigate the morphology, mineral composition and structure of uroliths. RESULTS: The average content of elements in the uroliths, and the element concentrations normalized by the clark were established. After calculating the concentration, geochemical associative series of elements were formed. Depending on the morphology, drusiform, microspherolite, porous, coral formations, uroliths with a smoothed surface and stones with combined morphology were identified. Three groups of uroliths were defined according to their structural features: crystalline-granular, spherolithic and combined. CONCLUSION: Studies to determine the mineral composition and structure of the uroliths of the inhabitants of the Tomsk region made it possible to calculate the content of the elements that make up uroliths, normalized by clarks of the noosphere. Each medical sub-district has its own specific geochemical series, which depends on natural and technogenic factors. The increased value of the indicator of the content of elements in uroliths should serve as a warning factor for developing measures to reduce the urolithiasis incidence in the population.

Ectopic calcification: importance of common nanoparticle scaffolds containing oxidized acidic lipids.

The term nanobacteria, sometimes referred to as nanobacteria-like particles (NLPs), is presently recognized as a misnomer for inert calcified nanoparticles. However, misinterpretation of its propagation as a living organism still continues. Ultrastructural and elemental analyses, combining immuno-electron microscopy with an original NLP isolate (P-17) derived from urinary stones, and an IgM monoclonal antibody (CL-15) raised against P-17 have now revealed that, oxidized lipids with acidified functional groups were key elements in NLP propagation. Lamellar structures composed of acidic/oxidized lipids provided structural scaffolds for carbonate apatite crystals. During in vitro culture, lipid peroxidation induced by γ-irradiation of FBS was a major cause of accelerated NLP propagation. In pathological tissue samples from hyperlipidemic atherosclerosis-prone mice, CL-15 co-localized with fatty plaques, macrophage infiltrates and osteocalcin staining of aortic valve lesions. These observations indicate that naturally occurring NLP composed of mineralo-oxidized lipids complexes are generated as by-products rather than etiological agents of chronic inflammation. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR: The term "nanobacteria-like particles (NLPs)" is presently recognized as a misnomer for inert calcified nanoparticles as opposed to living organisms. This study convincingly demonstrates that naturally occurring NLPs composed of mineralo-oxidized lipid complexes are generated as by-products rather than etiological agents of chronic inflammation.

Detection and isolation of nanobacteria-like particles from urinary stones: long-withheld data.

OBJECTIVES: To report our experimental results on detection and isolation of nanobacteria-like particles (NLP) from urinary stone samples. METHODS: From March 2001 to August 2003, 47 urinary stone samples from Japanese patients and 18 from Paraguayan patients were collected and used for compositional analysis, direct survey of NLP by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and their cultural isolation. For the isolation, culturing was carried out using strict aseptic techniques. Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium with 10% gamma-irradiated fetal bovine serum was used based on the original method described by Kajander and Ciftçioglu. RESULTS: Positive NLP detection rates for Japanese and Paraguayan patient samples were 61.7% (29/47) and 66.7% (12/18), respectively. Positive NLP isolation rates for Japanese patient samples were 20.6% (7/34) and 20.0% (2/10) for Paraguayan patient samples. In the initial isolation, markedly different periods of incubation time were needed for each of the nine cases (6-220 days; median 36 days). Positive detection and isolation were obtained in stone samples with or without calcium phosphate. Growth modes and morphogenesis of NLP were divided into two phases; rod-shaped NLP was detected mainly as a floating form growing in culture medium and spherical NLP with a characteristic apatite shell was detected as an attached form growing on the surface of culture dishes. CONCLUSIONS: Lifeless calcifying nanoparticles can be isolated from various human urinary stones, cultured in cell culture mediums and show two characteristic growth phases.

Measurement of urine crystallites and its influencing factors by nanoparticle size analyzer.

The difference of urine crystallites under 1000 nm in 10 patients with urolithiasis and 10 healthy subjects with no history of urolithiasis was comparatively studied with the nanoparticle size analyzer. By comparing the differences of intensity-autocorrelation curve, polydispersity index (PDI), Zeta potential, and relative error of average diameter of the two kinds of urine crystallites, it was concluded that the urine crystallites of healthy subjects were more stable than those of patients. The urine crystallites of healthy subjects had a narrower size distribution from 100 nm to 350 nm and a better dispersion (PDI < 0.3). However, the urine crystallites of patients with urolithiasis had a wider distribution from dozens of nanometers to 1000 nm and a worse dispersion (PDI > 0.5). The best processing method for urine crystallites detection was found: after antisepticising and protein-coagulating with formaldehyde, the urine was diluted with distilled water of the same volume, then filtrated through a micropore film of 3 microm, and the filtrate was centrifugalized at 4000 rpm for 15 minutes. This method can remove the cell fragments and macromolecular substances in the urine without affecting the detection of the urine crystallites under 1000 nm. The results were consistent with those obtained by transmission electron microscope (TEM).

Ultrastructural study of laminated urinary stone.

Several modalities of stone analysis are utilised in different laboratories. However, the treating clinician finds it hard to assess the initiation and progression of stone formation. The pathogenesis of calculogenesis still remains a mystery. The purpose of this paper is to assess the pathological mechanisms of stone nucleation and growth by observing the ultra microscopic morphology of the different layers of laminated stones; 130 fragments from 28 randomly selected laminated stones of more than 10-mm diameter were analysed. Wet chemical analysis of the stones was performed. Surface and cross-sectional morphology of the entire stones and the individual fragments was assessed using optical microscopy and images were recorded using ordinary camera. They were further analysed using FTIR for confirmation. By morphological analysis, whewellite, weddellite, uric acid, and phosphate were the main minerals identified. Mixtures of these minerals were also found. Concentric lamination, radial striation, frond formation, and amorphous pattern were the main cross-sectional morphologies obtained. The calculi analysed had differences in their outer and inner portions. This was more pronounced in stones containing predominantly whewellite and uric acid. Whewellite was the outer component in most mixed stones. Uric acid was more in the inner layers of mixed stones than the surface.

Optical microscopy versus scanning electron microscopy in urolithiasis.

Stone analysis is incompletely done in many clinical centers. Identification of the stone component is essential for deciding future prophylaxis. X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) still remains a distant dream for routine hospital work. It is in this context that optical microscopy is suggested as an alternate procedure. The objective of this article was to assess the utility of an optical microscope which gives magnification of up to 40x and gives clear picture of the surface of the stones. In order to authenticate the morphological analysis of urinary stones, SEM and elemental distribution analysis were performed. A total of 250 urinary stones of different compositions were collected from stone clinic, photographed, observed under an optical microscope, and optical photographs were taken at different angles. Twenty-five representative samples among these were gold sputtered to make them conductive and were fed into the SEM machine. Photographs of the samples were taken at different angles at magnifications up to 4,000. Elemental distribution analysis (EDAX) was done to confirm the composition. The observations of the two studies were compared. The different appearances of the stones under optical illuminated microscopy were mostly standardized appearances, namely bosselations of pure whewellite, spiculations of weddellite, bright yellow colored appearance of uric acid, and dirty white amorphous appearance of phosphates. SEM and EDAX gave clearer pictures and gave added confirmation of the stone composition. From the references thus obtained, it was possible to confirm the composition by studying the optical microscopic pictures. Higher magnification capacity of the SEM and the EDAX patterns are useful to give reference support for performing optical microscopy work. After standardization, routine analysis can be performed with optical microscopy. The advantage of the optical microscope is that, it is easy to use and samples can be analyzed in natural color.

Role of scanning electron microscopy in identifying drugs used in medical practice.

Several plant preparations are administered for treatment of stone disease without scientific basis. This paper presents the results of in vitro and animal experimental studies using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in the identification of the therapeutic properties of trial drugs in medicine. In the first set of the study, urinary crystals namely calcium oxalate monohydrate and calcium oxalate dehydrate were grown in six sets of Hane's tubes in silica gel medium. Trial drugs namely scoparia dulcis Lynn, musa sapiens and dolicos biflorus were incorporated in the gel medium to identify the dopant effect of the trial drugs on the size and extent of crystal column growth. The changes in morphology of crystals were studied using SEM. In the second set, six male Wistar rats each were calculogenised by administering sodium oxalate and ethylene glycol and diabetised using streptozotocin. The SEM changes of calculogenisation were studied. The rats were administered trial drugs before calculogenisation or after. The kidneys of the rats studied under the scanning electron microscope showed changes in tissue morphology and crystal deposition produced by calculogenisation and alterations produced by addition of trial drugs. The trial drugs produced changes in the pattern of crystal growth and in the crystal morphology of both calcium oxalate monohydrate and calcium oxalate dihydrate grown in vitro. Elemental distribution analysis showed that the crystal purity was not altered by the trial drugs. Scoparia dulcis Lynn was found to be the most effective anticalculogenic agent. Musa sapiens and dolicos biflorus were found to have no significant effect in inhibiting crystal growth. The kidneys of rats on calculogenisation showed different grades of crystals in the glomerulus and interstitial tissues, extrusion of the crystals into the tubular lumen, collodisation and tissue inflammatory cell infiltration. Scoparia dulcis Lynn exhibited maximum protector effect against the changes of calculogenisation. Musa sapiens and dolicos biflorus had only minimal effect in preventing crystal deposition, inflammatory cell infiltration and other changes of calculogenisation. SEM was found to be effective in assessing the effect of drugs on crystal growth morphology and tissue histology.

Racemic calcium tartrate tetrahydrate [form (II)] in rat urinary stones.

The title compound, [Ca(C4H4O6)].4H2O, calcium tartrate tetrahydrate, is a new triclinic centrosymmetric form identified in rat kidney calculus. The crystal structure was determined from powder and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The four water molecules belong to one square face of the Ca-atom coordination (a square antiprism), the four O atoms of the second square face coming from two tartrate anions, building infinite chains alternating Ca atom polyhedra and tartrate anions along a, with the chains cross-linked by a network of hydrogen bonds.

A combination of infrared spectroscopy and morphological analysis allows successfully identifying rare crystals and atypical urinary stones.

BACKGROUND: The combination of infrared spectroscopy and morphological analysis significantly improves the urinary stone analysis. In addition to common urinary stones, it is not unusual to encounter spurious or factitious stones that, if not appropriately identified, can lead to errors in the diagnosis. In this study, we show the importance of Infrared Spectroscopy and the morphological analysis, for determining the presence of drugs crystals or atypical components in the calculi. METHODS: 1041 urinary stones were analyzed by morphocostitutional analysis, in addition the rare stones were analyzed by chemical spot test analysis. RESULTS: Among 1041 calculi analyzed, 1018 had a known composition, 23 samples were stones with rare composition or fake urinary stones. CONCLUSIONS: Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), allows to identify, theoretically, any substance, including drug-containing calculi or calculi with unusual composition and identify false stones. This is mandatory to treat patients affected by urolithiasis with a personalized clinical approach.

Electron probe micro-analysis reveals the complexity of mineral deposition mechanisms in urinary stones.

Urinary stones are complex mineralogical formations in the urinary system often impairing the kidney function. Several studies have attempted to understand the mechanisms of stone formation and growth; however, it remains to be fully explored. Here, we present a detailed investigation on the morphological and mineralogical characterizations of urinary stones. Structural properties of different types of urinary stones were done by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) analyses. X-ray maps of major and the trace elements were obtained using electron microprobe (EPMA) technique. Basic metabolic panel and urinary parameters of the patients were used for comparing mineral compositions among stone types. The study included five major types of stones identified based on the FTIR spectra. FTIR and XRD helped in identifying the major components of these stones. FE-SEM images revealed distinct microstructure and morphology of the stones among the stone types. EPMA analysis showed the presence of many metals other than calcium and certain non-metals within the urinary stone matrix at measurable levels, sometimes with distinct distribution patterns. The study demonstrates the characteristic micro-structure, morphology, distribution, and composition of elements in different stone types. Findings of the study provide scope for understanding the complex mechanisms involved in the urolithogenesis and association of trace elements in it.

Stone treatment index: a mathematical summary of the procedure for removal of stones from the urinary tract.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Numerous factors influence the treatment result and efforts for stone removal. To summarize the important factors, our aim was to formulate a general mathematical expression of the stone-removal procedure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A mathematical expression (stone treatment index; STI) was developed for patients who became stone free (SF): STI(SF) = (Num(SF) x mean(sqrt [SA] x HI) x meanAge(R) x meanBMI(R) x (1 + meanNum(ANA)) divided by Num(SESSIONS) + Num(AUX) + Num(ANE) + Num(COMP). The variables included were the number of stone-free patients (Num(SF)), mean stone burden expressed as the product of the square root of the stone surface area (SA(1/2)) and the hardness index (HI), the mean age ratio (Age(R) = age/50), the mean body mass index (BMI) ratio (BMI(R) = BMI/25), the mean number of patients with anatomic abnormalities (Num(ANA)), the total number of treatment sessions (Num(SESSIONS)), the number of auxiliary procedures (Num(AUX)), the number of procedures requiring general or regional anesthesia (Num(ANE)), and the number of complications (Num(COMP)). A similar index was calculated for patients who were either stone free or had residual fragments < or =4 mm (STI(DIS)). For conclusions on efficacy, these indices were compared with optimal and total values of STI. The STI was calculated for 450 patients with renal and 374 patients with ureteral stones treated with shockwave lithotripsy as the primary procedure. In patients with a known BMI, this factor was used; otherwise, the BMI(R) was set to 1. RESULTS: When STI was compared with the efficiency quotient (EQ) for stones in different size intervals, STI was less sensitive to variations in stone burden. The quotients STI(SF)/STI(OPTIMAL) corresponded roughly to EQ but might be more informative because of the inclusion of factors for anesthesia and complications. CONCLUSION: With or without related estimates, the STI might be useful for summarizing stone-removal procedures in groups or individual patients with urinary-tract stones. The STI might be helpful because it encompasses the factors of importance for conclusions about the treatment procedure, such as the hardness of the stone, the age and body size of the patient, and the presence of anatomic abnormalities likely to influence the result. The STI might be used advantageously for comparison of different equipment and treatment strategies.

Vickers hardness studies of calcium oxalate monohydrate and brushite urinary stones.

PURPOSE: To measure the hardness of two types of urinary stones: calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM; CaC2O4 . H2O) and dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (brushite; CaHPO4 . 2H2O). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The composition of 28 calcium oxalate monohydrate and 22 brushite stones was characterized by infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Stone specimens were embedded in crystallographic resin, polished, and subjected to indentation tests using a Vickers tester. The hardness was calculated from measuring the diagonal lengths of the residual indentation on the specimen using the appropriate equation. RESULTS: The COM stones showed hardness values ranging from 15.3 to 64.2 HV with a mean of 35.8 +/- 13.3, while brushite stones ranged from 10.1 to 46.1 HV with a mean of 26.5 +/- 15.1. The results of ANOVA showed that there were significant differences (P < 0.05) between the two stone types. CONCLUSIONS: Calcium oxalate monohydrate stones exhibited greater hardness than brushite stones when assessed with Vickers studies.

Physical, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopic studies of uroliths.

Identification of chemical constituents of calculus is important in the diagnosis and management of urolithiasis. The compositional variability of uroliths has different etiologies and requires various modes of treatment and prophylaxis. In the present study, we report the chemical compositional analyses of calculi recovered from buck and bullock by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) techniques and ultra-structure examination by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). XRD and EDX investigations conclusively established the chemical compositions of urinary calculi under investigation. The calculus from buck (sample I) had calcium oxalate monohydrate, a dominant salt phase and magnesium compound in significant amount. The calculus from bullock (sample II) had magnesium ammonium phosphate phase, with significant amount of calcium in apatite form and K+ ions. SEM study at higher magnification (X 1000) showed bipyramidal crystals in external zones of urolith (sample I). The struvite apatite calculus showed that basic unit of structure was lamination and the laminitis appeared to be made up of fine granules and high porosity. The bio-mineralization process of calculus formation was also studied, with a view to take preventive and therapeutic measures for amelioration of urinary stone diseases in animals and humans.

Structural characterization and vibrational studies of human urinary stones from Istanbul, Turkey.

Seven human urinary stones were collected from urinary bladders of patients hailing from Istanbul, Turkey. Their XRD, EDX, FT-IR and FT-Raman spectra as well as SEM images have been recorded to determine their chemical compositions, morphologies, crystal structures, and crystallite sizes. XRD and vibrational (FT-IR and FT-Raman) analyses indicate that six out of the seven stones have identical contents. The ratios of organic and inorganic contents of the stones have been determined by their thermogravimetric analyses. The stones have been found to contain calcium oxalate monohydrate and apatite as the major components.

Composition, microstructure and element study of urinary calculi.

To better understand the basis of urinary calculi formation, we studied the composition, microstructure, and element analysis of different types of urinary calculi. Sixty people with urinary stones in Shanxi province were selected randomly. The composition of urinary stones was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The microstructure of material components was observed by a scanning electron microscopy and the elemental distribution and composition were analyzed by an X-ray energy spectrometer. Furthermore, general information, BMI, history of medicine, chronic medical history, family history, and recurrence rates were collected. Female-to-male ratio was 1:2.5; median age was 43.2 years old. Of the patients, 13.3% were found definite family history and 46.6% of patients for recurrence history. It was found that mixed stones account for the largest proportion (65%), followed by calcium oxalate monohydrate calculi (26.67%). In mixed stones, the mixture of calcium oxalate monohydrate and hydroxyapatite had the largest proportion, accounting for 71.79%. Stones showed different microcosmic characteristics and element distribution. Stones varied widely in distribution, infrared spectrum, microstructure, and element composition, which provided an important basis for urinary calculi research regarding urinary stone formation.

Analysis of urinary stone components by x-ray coherent scatter: characterizing composition beyond laboratory x-ray diffractometry.

Monoenergetic x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis is an established standard for the assessment of urinary stone composition. The inherent low energy of x-rays used (8 keV), however, restricts penetration depth and imposes a requirement for small powdered samples. A technique capable of producing detailed information regarding component structural arrangements in calculi non-destructively would provide clearer insights into causes of formation and subsequent growth and allow the selection of more appropriate courses of therapy. We describe a new method based on the detection of coherent scatter (CS) in stone components using polyenergetic x-rays (70 kVp) from diagnostic equipment. While the higher energy allows the analysis of intact calculi, the polyenergetic source causes an angular broadening of measured CS patterns. We show that it is possible to relate the polyenergetic (CS) and monoenergetic (XRD) measurements through a superposition integral of the monoenergetic XRD cross-section with a function representative of the polyenergetic spectrum used in CS. Experimentally acquired diffractometry cross-sections of the seven major urinary stone components were subjected to this operation, revealing good agreement of diffraction features with CS. Therefore, our CS analysis is sensitive to stone component structure, similar to conventional XRD analysis. This indicates that CS analysis can be used as a basis to classify urinary calculi by composition. The potential of identifying stone components non-destructively was demonstrated from a tomographic CS analysis of a stone-mimicking phantom. Tomographic composition maps were generated from CS patterns, showing the structural arrangement of multiple stone components within the phantom. CS analysis has the ability to detect components in the presence of many others. The ability to perform CS measurements in intact calculi would allow for the identification of stone structures critical to patient metaprophylaxis.