Trafficking of Shigella lipopolysaccharide in polarized intestinal epithelial cells.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at the apical surface of polarized intestinal epithelial cells was previously shown to be transported from the apical to the basolateral pole of the epithelium (Beatty, W.L., and P.J. Sansonetti. 1997. Infect. Immun. 65:4395-4404). The present study was designed to elucidate the transcytotic pathway of LPS and to characterize the endocytic compartments involved in this process. Confocal and electron microscopic analyses revealed that LPS internalized at the apical surface became rapidly distributed within endosomal compartments accessible to basolaterally internalized transferrin. This compartment largely excluded fluid-phase markers added at either pole. Access to the basolateral side of the epithelium subsequent to trafficking to basolateral endosomes occurred via exocytosis into the paracellular space beneath the intercellular tight junctions. LPS appeared to exploit other endocytic routes with much of the internalized LPS recycled to the original apical membrane. In addition, analysis of LPS in association with markers of the endocytic network revealed that some LPS was sent to late endosomal and lysosomal compartments.

Repeated and persistent infection with Chlamydia and the development of chronic inflammation and disease.

Chlamydia trachomatis is an important human pathogen that mediates disease processes capable of inflicting permanent damage. Aggressive inflammatory responses to repeated infections, and to a persistent form of this intracellular bacterium, are thought to initiate the pathogenic events that lead to the debilitating sequelae of blinding trachoma and infertility.

Direct delivery of procathepsin D to phagosomes: implications for phagosome biogenesis and parasitism by Mycobacterium.

Phagosome maturation is characterized by the sequential acquisition and loss of proteins by the phagocytic vacuole during the formation of an acidic and hydrolytic compartment where degradation of the phagocytosed particle occurs. Transfer of proteins to the maturing phagosome occurs by fusion with a range of vesicles. Here we describe direct fusion of early phagosomes with vesicles that appear to be derived from the biosynthetic pathway. In mouse bone marrow macrophages, the 51 kDa proform of cathepsin D was found in vesicles of the ER/Golgi network that could be discriminated from endosomal vesicles which in turn contained the 46 and 30 kDa processed forms of the enzyme. Procathepsin D was acquired by phagosomes formed around inert particles such as IgG-coated beads and could be "protected" by blocking acidification with Bafilomycin A1. Mycobacterium avium-containing vacuoles from established infections possessed both pro- and processed cathepsin D similar to early bead-containing phagosomes. In contrast phagosomes harboring dead mycobacteria demonstrated markedly enhanced acquisition of the 46kDa form within 4 h post internalization and only low levels of procathepsin D.

Mycobacterial surface moieties are released from infected macrophages by a constitutive exocytic event.

Bacterial cell wall constituents are released from mycobacterial phagosomes and actively traffic within infected macrophages. Colocalization of fluorescently tagged bacterial moieties with endocytic tracers revealed the dynamic movement of released mycobacterial constituents into the endocytic network with accumulation in tubular lysosomal-like compartments. The released bacterial constituents not only penetrated the infected host cell but were also present in an extracellular microvesicular fraction. To identify the intracellular source of these exocytic compartments, released vesicular material was isolated from culture supernatants by differential ultracentrifugation and characterized by Western blot and electron microscopy analyses. The presence of lysosomal membrane proteins and lysosomal proteases suggested that labeled mycobacterial cell wall constituents access a constitutive lysosomal exocytic pathway. An abundance of multilamellar extracellular compartments morphologically reminiscent of MHC class II-enriched compartments (MIIC) implicated a MHC class II transport pathway in the extracellular release of bacterial constituents. Increases in intracellular free calcium have previously been shown to trigger lysosomal exocytosis by inducing fusion of lysosomes with the plasma membrane. To test if an increase in calcium would stimulate exocytosis with release of mycobacterial constituents, infected macrophages were exposed to the calcium ionophore A23187. The ionophore triggered the release of a microvesicular fraction containing labeled bacterial moieties, implicating calcium-regulated lysosomal exocytosis as a trafficking pathway by which mycobacterial products are released from infected macrophages.

A secreted serine-threonine kinase determines virulence in the eukaryotic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii.

Toxoplasma gondii strains differ dramatically in virulence despite being genetically very similar. Genetic mapping revealed two closely adjacent quantitative trait loci on parasite chromosome VIIa that control the extreme virulence of the type I lineage. Positional cloning identified the candidate virulence gene ROP18, a highly polymorphic serine-threonine kinase that was secreted into the host cell during parasite invasion. Transfection of the virulent ROP18 allele into a nonpathogenic type III strain increased growth and enhanced mortality by 4 to 5 logs. These attributes of ROP18 required kinase activity, which revealed that secretion of effectors is a major component of parasite virulence.

Role of lipopolysaccharide in signaling to subepithelial polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

Polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) infiltration and migration across colonic intestinal epithelia is a hallmark of inflammation in Shigella flexneri-mediated dysentery. To identify bacterial signals associated with this process, potential stimulatory factors mediating initial PMN association with the epithelium and subsequent transepithelial migration were examined in an in vitro model system. Quantitative analyses revealed that purified S. flexneri lipopolysaccharide (LPS) deposited at the apical surface of polarized intestinal epithelial cells transcytosed to the basolateral pole, a process dependent on the stage of epithelial cell differentiation. Transcytosed LPS in the presence of normal human serum (NHS), a source of LPS binding protein and soluble CD14, mediated both interleukin-8 secretion at the basolateral pole and enhanced PMN adherence. In addition, LPS stimulated a significant degree of directed transepithelial migration of PMNs, an event that was further enhanced in the presence of NHS. These results implicate LPS in signaling subepithelial PMN emigration and enhancing PMN-epithelium interactions prior to and during subsequent Shigella-induced transepithelial migration.

Identification of mycobacterial surface proteins released into subcellular compartments of infected macrophages.

Considerable effort has focused on the identification of proteins secreted from Mycobacterium spp. that contribute to the development of protective immunity. Little is known, however, about the release of mycobacterial proteins from the bacterial phagosome and the potential role of these molecules in chronically infected macrophages. In the present study, the release of mycobacterial surface proteins from the bacterial phagosome into subcellular compartments of infected macrophages was analyzed. Mycobacterium bovis BCG was surface labeled with fluorescein-tagged succinimidyl ester, an amine-reactive probe. The fluorescein tag was then used as a marker for the release of bacterial proteins in infected macrophages. Fractionation studies revealed bacterial proteins within subcellular compartments distinct from mycobacteria and mycobacterial phagosomes. To identify these proteins, subcellular fractions free of bacteria were probed with mycobacterium-specific antibodies. The fibronectin attachment protein and proteins of the antigen 85-kDa complex were identified among the mycobacterial proteins released from the bacterial phagosome.

Reactivation of persistent Chlamydia trachomatis infection in cell culture.

Gamma interferon induces persistent chlamydial infections in cell culture. These infections are characterized by altered morphologic and biochemical features of the pathogen. These persistent forms are abnormally large and noninfectious and undergo unusual structural and functional changes, including production of a paucity of outer envelope constituents and normal levels of the chlamydial hsp60, an immunopathological antigen. The current investigation evaluates the events that occur during reactivation of infectious Chlamydia trachomatis from persistently infected cell cultures. Transfer of persistent chlamydial organisms to gamma interferon-free medium resulted in recovery of infectivity accompanied by an increase in levels of structural membrane proteins and reorganization of aberrant organisms to morphologically typical elementary bodies. In addition, reactivation of infectious organisms from persistent chlamydiae that were maintained in culture for several weeks was demonstrated. These studies show that persistent C. trachomatis maintains viability for extended periods, illustrate the reversibility of immunologically mediated persistent infections, and characterize reactivation at the ultrastructural and biochemical levels.

Caveats in the investigation of form-specific molecules of Candida albicans.

Numerous reports purporting the existence of form-specific antigens of Candida albicans have been published, but it is generally unclear whether antigenic variability is an acceptable alternative interpretation. In this study, we used indirect immunofluorescence and immunogold electron microscopy to determine the distribution and form specificities of two antigens during yeast and hyphal growth in several defined and complex media. The results confirmed that antigen expression varies with length of incubation, nutrition, and serotype and indicate that the form specificities of antigens may be misinterpreted when conclusions are based exclusively on indirect immunofluorescence and extraction procedures. We therefore suggest that investigations be designed to include serotype A and B isolates grown in both complex and chemically defined media and that agglutination, immunofluorescence, or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays on whole cells or cell extracts be used as presumptive tests. Confirmation of form-specific antigens should be done by appropriate immunoelectron microscopic evaluation.

Interaction of Mycobacterium avium-containing phagosomes with the antigen presentation pathway.

Pathogenic mycobacteria infect macrophages where they replicate in phagosomes that minimize contact with late endosomal/lysosomal compartments. Loading of Ags to MHC class II molecules occurs in specialized compartments with late endosomal characteristics. This points to a sequestration of mycobacteria-containing phagosomes from the sites where Ags meet MHC class II molecules. Indeed, in resting macrophages MHC class II levels decreased strongly in phagosomes containing M. avium during a 4-day infection. Phagosomal MHC class II of early (4 h) infections was partly surface-derived and associated with peptide. Activation of host macrophages led to the appearance of H2-M, a chaperon of Ag loading, and to a strong increase in MHC class II molecules in phagosomes of acute (1 day) infections. Comparison with the kinetics of MHC class II acquisition by IgG-coated bead-containing phagosomes suggests that the arrest in phagosome maturation by mycobacteria limits the intersection of mycobacteria-containing phagosomes with the intracellular trafficking pathways of Ag-presenting molecules.

Persistent chlamydiae: from cell culture to a paradigm for chlamydial pathogenesis.

Chlamydiae are medically important bacteria responsible for a wide range of human infections and diseases. Repeated episodes of infection promote chronic inflammation associated with detrimental immune system-mediated pathologic changes. However, the true nature of chlamydial pathogenesis may encompass repeated infection superimposed upon persistent infection, which would allow for heightened immune reactivity. During the course of chlamydial infection, numerous host elaborated factors with inhibitory or modifying effects may cause alterations in the chlamydia-host cell relationship such that the organism is maintained in a nonproductive stage of growth. Abnormal or persistent chlamydiae have been recognized under a variety of cell culture systems. The numerous factors associated with altered growth suggest an innate flexibility in the developmental cycle of chlamydiae. This review evaluates in vitro studies of chlamydial persistence and correlates these model systems to features of natural chlamydial disease.

Immunoelectron-microscopic quantitation of differential levels of chlamydial proteins in a cell culture model of persistent Chlamydia trachomatis infection.

Electron immunolabeling techniques were used for quantitative evaluation of alterations in the steady-state levels of chlamydial antigens in persistent Chlamydia trachomatis cultures. Gamma interferon-mediated persistent chlamydial development correlated with an increase in the levels of the chlamydial heat shock protein (hsp60) and with a significant reduction in the levels of the major outer membrane protein.

Morphologic and antigenic characterization of interferon gamma-mediated persistent Chlamydia trachomatis infection in vitro.

An in vitro cell culture system was used to study the effect of interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) on Chlamydia trachomatis growth and differentiation. The effect of IFN-gamma on chlamydiae was dose-dependent. IFN-gamma at 2 ng/ml completely inhibited chlamydial growth and differentiation; however, persistent infection was established when chlamydiae were cultured with IFN-gamma at 0.2 ng/ml. Persistent infection was characterized by the development of noninfectious atypical chlamydial forms from which infectious progeny could be recovered only when IFN-gamma was removed from the culture system. Analysis of persistently infected cells by immunofluorescent microscopy and immunoblotting with specific antibodies revealed that the atypical chlamydial forms had near-normal levels of the 60-kDa heat shock protein, an immunopathologic antigen, and a paucity of the major outer membrane protein, a protective antigen. Furthermore, steady-state levels of other outer membrane constituents, such as the 60-kDa cysteine-rich outer membrane protein and lipopolysaccharide, were greatly reduced. If IFN-gamma causes similar events to occur in vivo, then persistently infected cells could augment the pathogenesis of the chronic inflammatory sequelae that follow chlamydial infection by serving as depots of antigen capable of stimulating a sustained inflammatory response.

Trafficking and release of mycobacterial lipids from infected macrophages.

Analysis of infected macrophages revealed that lipid-containing moieties of the mycobacterial cell wall are actively trafficked out of the mycobacterial vacuole. To facilitate the analysis of vesicular trafficking from mycobacteria-containing phagosomes, surface-exposed carbohydrates were labeled with hydrazide-tagged markers. The distribution of labeled carbohydrate/lipid moieties and subsequent interaction with cellular compartments were analyzed by immunoelectron microscopy and by fluorescence microscopy of live cells. The released mycobacterial constituents were associated with several intracellular organelles and were enriched strikingly in tubular endocytic compartments. Subcellular fractionation of infected macrophages by density gradient electrophoresis showed temporal movement of labeled bacterial constituents through early and late endosomes. Thin layer chromatography analysis of these subcellular fractions confirmed their lipid nature and revealed five dominant bacteria-derived species. These mycobacterial lipids were also found in extracellular vesicles isolated from the medium and could be observed in un-infected 'bystander' cells. Their transfer to bystander cells could expand the bacteria's sphere of influence beyond the immediate confines of the host cell.

Tryptophan depletion as a mechanism of gamma interferon-mediated chlamydial persistence.

Previous studies have shown that the immune-regulated cytokine gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) activates host cells to restrict intracellular growth of the bacterial pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis by induction of the tryptophan-catabolizing enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Recently, subinhibitory levels of IFN-gamma were used to generate an in vitro persistent chlamydial infection characterized by large aberrant, noninfectious reticulate bodies from which infectious progeny could be recovered following the removal of IFN-gamma. Studies were done to determine if the mechanism functioning to induce chlamydiae to enter a persistent state in the presence of low levels of IFN-gamma was similar to that reported to inhibit chlamydial growth. Host cells treated with levels of IFN-gamma required to induce persistence were assessed for IDO activity by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of tryptophan and its catabolic products. Substantial tryptophan catabolism was detected in acid-soluble cellular pools, indicating that the intracellular availability of this essential amino acid was limited under these conditions. In addition, a mutant cell line responsive to IFN-gamma but deficient in IDO activity was shown to support C. trachomatis growth, but aberrant organisms were not induced in response to IFN-gamma treatment. Analyses of infected cells cultured in medium with incremental levels of exogenous tryptophan indicated that persistent growth was induced by reducing the amount of this essential amino acid. These studies confirmed that nutrient deprivation by IDO-mediated tryptophan catabolism was the mechanism by which IFN-gamma mediates persistent growth of C. trachomatis.

Chlamydia pneumoniae expresses genes required for DNA replication but not cytokinesis during persistent infection of HEp-2 cells.

Chlamydia pneumoniae causes community-acquired pneumonia and is associated with several chronic diseases, including asthma and atherosclerosis. The intracellular growth rate of C. pneumoniae slows dramatically during chronic infection, and such persistence leads to attenuated production of new elementary bodies, appearance of morphologically aberrant reticulate bodies, and altered expression of several chlamydial genes. We used an in vitro system to further characterize persistent C. pneumoniae infection, employing both ultrastructural and transcriptional activity measurements. HEp-2 cells were infected with C. pneumoniae (TW-183) at a multiplicity of infection of 3:1, and at 2 h postinfection gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) was added to the medium at 0.15 or 0.50 ng/ml. Treated and untreated cultures were harvested at several times postinfection. RNA was isolated and reverse transcribed, and reverse transcription (RT)-PCR analyses targeting primary transcripts from chlamydial rRNA operons as well as dnaA, polA, mutS, minD, ftsK, and ftsW mRNA were done. Some cultures were fixed and stained for electron microscopic analysis, and a real-time PCR assay was used to assess relative chlamydial chromosome accumulation under each culture condition. The latter assays showed that bacterial chromosome copies accumulated severalfold during IFN-gamma treatment of infected HEp-2 cells, although less accumulation was observed in cells treated with the higher dose. Electron microscopy demonstrated that high-dose IFN-gamma treatment elicited aberrant forms of the bacterium. RT-PCR showed that chlamydial primary rRNA transcripts were present in all IFN-gamma-treated and untreated cell cultures, indicating bacterial metabolic activity. Transcripts from dnaA, polA, mutS, and minD, all of which encode products for bacterial chromosome replication and partition, were expressed in IFN-gamma-treated and untreated cells. In contrast, ftsK and ftsW, encoding products for bacterial cell division, were expressed in untreated cells, but expression was attenuated in cells treated with low-dose IFN-gamma and absent in cells given the high dose of cytokine. Thus, the development of persistence included production of transcripts for DNA replication-related, but not cell division-related, genes. These results provide new insight regarding molecular activities that accompany persistence of C. pneumoniae, as well as suggesting requirements for reactivation from persistent to productive growth.