Ionizing radiation-induced expression of INK4a/ARF in murine bone marrow-derived stromal cell populations interferes with bone marrow homeostasis.

Alterations of the BM microenvironment have been shown to occur after chemoradiotherapy, during aging, and after genetic manipulations of telomere length. Nevertheless, whether BM stromal cells adopt senescent features in response to these events is unknown. In the present study, we provide evidence that exposure to ionizing radiation (IR) leads murine stromal BM cells to express senescence markers, namely senescence-associated ß-galactosidase and increased p16(INK4a)/p19(ARF) expression. Long (8 weeks) after exposure of mice to IR, we observed a reduction in the number of stromal cells derived from BM aspirates, an effect that we found to be absent in irradiated Ink4a/arf-knockout mice and to be mostly independent of the CFU potential of the stroma. Such a reduction in the number of BM stromal cells was specific, because stromal cells isolated from collagenase-treated bones were not reduced after IR. Surprisingly, we found that exposure to IR leads to a cellular nonautonomous and Ink4a/arf-dependent effect on lymphopoiesis. Overall, our results reveal the distinct sensitivity of BM stromal cell populations to IR and suggest that long-term residual damage to the BM microenvironment can influence hematopoiesis in an Ink4a/arf-dependent manner.

Heterotopic bone formation derived from multipotent stromal cells is not inhibited in aged mice.

BACKGROUND AIMS: Decreased bone formation with age is believed to arise, at least in part, because of the influence of the senescent microenvironment. In this context, it is unclear whether multipotent stromal cell (MSC)-based therapies would be effective for the treatment of bone diseases. METHODS: With the use of a heterotopic bone formation model, we investigated whether MSC-derived osteogenesis is impaired in aged mice compared with young mice. RESULTS: We found that bone formation derived from MSCs is not reduced in aged mice. These results are supported by the unexpected finding that conditioned media collected from ionizing radiation-induced senescent MSCs can stimulate mineralization and delay osteoclastogenesis in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our results suggest that impaired bone formation with age is mainly cell-autonomous and provide a rationale for the use of MSC-based therapies for the treatment of bone diseases in the elderly.

DNA-SCARS: distinct nuclear structures that sustain damage-induced senescence growth arrest and inflammatory cytokine secretion.

DNA damage can induce a tumor suppressive response termed cellular senescence. Damaged senescent cells permanently arrest growth, secrete inflammatory cytokines and other proteins and harbor persistent nuclear foci that contain DNA damage response (DDR) proteins. To understand how persistent damage foci differ from transient foci that mark repairable DNA lesions, we identify sequential events that differentiate transient foci from persistent foci, which we term 'DNA segments with chromatin alterations reinforcing senescence' (DNA-SCARS). Unlike transient foci, DNA-SCARS associate with PML nuclear bodies, lack the DNA repair proteins RPA and RAD51, lack single-stranded DNA and DNA synthesis and accumulate activated forms of the DDR mediators CHK2 and p53. DNA-SCARS form independently of p53, pRB and several other checkpoint and repair proteins but require p53 and pRb to trigger the senescence growth arrest. Importantly, depletion of the DNA-SCARS-stabilizing component histone H2AX did not deplete 53BP1 from DNA-SCARS but diminished the presence of MDC1 and activated CHK2. Furthermore, depletion of H2AX reduced both the p53-dependent senescence growth arrest and p53-independent cytokine secretion. DNA-SCARS were also observed following severe damage to multiple human cell types and mouse tissues, suggesting that they can be used in combination with other markers to identify senescent cells. Thus, DNA-SCARS are dynamically formed distinct structures that functionally regulate multiple aspects of the senescent phenotype.

Highly efficient endogenous human gene correction using designed zinc-finger nucleases.

Permanent modification of the human genome in vivo is impractical owing to the low frequency of homologous recombination in human cells, a fact that hampers biomedical research and progress towards safe and effective gene therapy. Here we report a general solution using two fundamental biological processes: DNA recognition by C2H2 zinc-finger proteins and homology-directed repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Zinc-finger proteins engineered to recognize a unique chromosomal site can be fused to a nuclease domain, and a double-strand break induced by the resulting zinc-finger nuclease can create specific sequence alterations by stimulating homologous recombination between the chromosome and an extrachromosomal DNA donor. We show that zinc-finger nucleases designed against an X-linked severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) mutation in the IL2Rgamma gene yielded more than 18% gene-modified human cells without selection. Remarkably, about 7% of the cells acquired the desired genetic modification on both X chromosomes, with cell genotype accurately reflected at the messenger RNA and protein levels. We observe comparably high frequencies in human T cells, raising the possibility of strategies based on zinc-finger nucleases for the treatment of disease.

Secretion of SDF-1alpha by bone marrow-derived stromal cells enhances skin wound healing of C57BL/6 mice exposed to ionizing radiation.

Patients treated for cancer therapy using ionizing radiation (IR) have delayed tissue repair and regeneration. The mechanisms mediating these defects remain largely unknown at present, thus limiting the development of therapeutic approaches. Using a wound healing model, we here investigate the mechanisms by which IR exposure limits skin regeneration. Our data show that induction of the stromal cell-derived growth factor 1alpha (SDF-1alpha) is severely impaired in the wounded skin of irradiated, compared to non-irradiated, mice. Hence, we evaluated the potential of bone marrow-derived multipotent stromal cells (MSCs), which secrete high levels of SDF-1alpha, to improve skin regeneration in irradiated mice. Injection of MSCs into the wound margin led to remarkable enhancement of skin healing in mice exposed to IR. Injection of irradiated MSCs into the wound periphery of non-irradiated mice delayed wound closure, also suggesting an important role for the stromal microenvironment in skin repair. The beneficial actions of MSCs were mainly paracrine, as the cells did not differentiate into keratinocytes. Specific knockdown of SDF-1alpha expression led to drastically reduced efficiency of MSCs in improving wound closure, indicating that SDF-1alpha secretion by MSCs is largely responsible for their beneficial action. We also found that one mechanism by which SDF-1alpha enhances wound closure likely involves increased skin vascularization. Our findings collectively indicate that SDF-1alpha is an important deregulated cytokine in irradiated wounded skin, and that the decline in tissue regeneration potential following IR can be reversed, given adequate microenvironmental support.

Targeted gene addition to human mesenchymal stromal cells as a cell-based plasma-soluble protein delivery platform.

BACKGROUND AIMS: Gene-modified mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) provide a promising tool for cell and gene therapy-based applications by potentially acting as a cellular vehicle for protein-replacement therapy. However, to avoid the risk of insertional mutagenesis, targeted integration of a transgene into a 'safe harbor' locus is of great interest. METHODS: We sought to determine whether zinc finger nuclease (ZFN)-mediated targeted addition of the erythropoietin (Epo) gene into the chemokine [C-C motif] receptor 5 (CCR5) gene locus, a putative safe harbor locus, in MSC would result in stable transgene expression in vivo. RESULTS: Whether derived from bone marrow (BM), umbilical cord blood (UCB) or adipose tissue (AT), 30-40% of human MSC underwent ZFN-driven targeted gene addition, as determined by a combination of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)- and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based analyzes. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based analysis of gene-targeted MSC expressing Epo from the CCR5 locus showed that these modified MSC were found to secrete a significant level of Epo (c. 2 IU/10(6)cells/24 h). NOD/SCID/gammaC mice injected with ZFN-modified MSC expressing Epo exhibited significantly higher hematocrit and Epo plasma levels for several weeks post-injection, compared with mice receiving control MSC. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate that MSC modified by ZFN-driven targeted gene addition may represent a cellular vehicle for delivery of plasma-soluble therapeutic factors.

Gene editing in human stem cells using zinc finger nucleases and integrase-defective lentiviral vector delivery.

Achieving the full potential of zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) for genome engineering in human cells requires their efficient delivery to the relevant cell types. Here we exploited the infectivity of integrase-defective lentiviral vectors (IDLV) to express ZFNs and provide the template DNA for gene correction in different cell types. IDLV-mediated delivery supported high rates (13-39%) of editing at the IL-2 receptor common gamma-chain gene (IL2RG) across different cell types. IDLVs also mediated site-specific gene addition by a process that required ZFN cleavage and homologous template DNA, thus establishing a platform that can target the insertion of transgenes into a predetermined genomic site. Using IDLV delivery and ZFNs targeting distinct loci, we observed high levels of gene addition (up to 50%) in a panel of human cell lines, as well as human embryonic stem cells (5%), allowing rapid, selection-free isolation of clonogenic cells with the desired genetic modification.

An improved zinc-finger nuclease architecture for highly specific genome editing.

Genome editing driven by zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) yields high gene-modification efficiencies (>10%) by introducing a recombinogenic double-strand break into the targeted gene. The cleavage event is induced using two custom-designed ZFNs that heterodimerize upon binding DNA to form a catalytically active nuclease complex. Using the current ZFN architecture, however, cleavage-competent homodimers may also form that can limit safety or efficacy via off-target cleavage. Here we develop an improved ZFN architecture that eliminates this problem. Using structure-based design, we engineer two variant ZFNs that efficiently cleave DNA only when paired as a heterodimer. These ZFNs modify a native endogenous locus as efficiently as the parental architecture, but with a >40-fold reduction in homodimer function and much lower levels of genome-wide cleavage. This architecture provides a general means for improving the specificity of ZFNs as gene modification reagents.

Blockade of sensory abnormalities and kinin B(1) receptor expression by N-acetyl-L-cysteine and ramipril in a rat model of insulin resistance.

Glucose-fed rat is a model of insulin resistance that displays sensory polyneuropathy and hypertension. This study aimed at comparing the beneficial effects of N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC, antioxidant) and ramipril (angiotensin-1 converting enzyme inhibitor) on tactile and cold allodynia induced by chronic glucose feeding. Impact of these treatments was also assessed on hypertension, plasma glucose and insulin concentrations, insulin resistance and kinin B(1) receptor expression. Male Wistar rats (50-75 g) were given 10% d-glucose in their drinking water for 11 weeks or tap water (controls). Glucose-fed rats were treated either with NAC (1 g/kg/day, gavage), ramipril (1 mg/kg/day in drinking water) or no drug during the last 5 weeks. Glucose feeding for 6 weeks induced a significant increase in systolic blood pressure and hyperglycaemia which was accompanied by tactile and cold allodynia. At 11 weeks, plasma insulin, insulin resistance (HOMA index), kinin B(1) receptor mRNA in spinal cord and renal cortex and B(1) receptor binding sites in spinal cord were enhanced in glucose-fed rats. NAC and ramipril caused a progressive to complete inhibition of tactile and cold allodynia from 6 to 11 weeks. High systolic blood pressure, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and kinin B(1) receptor expression were also normalized or attenuated in glucose-fed rats by either treatment. Results suggest that chronic treatment with an antioxidant or an ACE inhibitor provides similar beneficial effects on sensory polyneuropathy, hypertension and insulin resistance in glucose-fed rats. Both therapies were associated with a reduction of the expression of the pro-nociceptive kinin B(1) receptor.

Loss of the osteogenic differentiation potential during senescence is limited to bone progenitor cells and is dependent on p53.

DNA damage can lead to the induction of cellular senescence. In particular, we showed that exposure to ionizing radiation (IR) leads to the senescence of bone marrow-derived multipotent stromal cells (MSC) and osteoblast-like stromal cells (OB-SC), a phenotype associated with bone loss. The mechanism by which IR leads to bone dysfunction is not fully understood. One possibility involves that DNA damage-induced senescence limits the regeneration of bone progenitor cells. Another possibility entails that bone dysfunction arises from the inability of accumulating senescent cells to fulfill their physiological function. Indeed, we show here that exposure to IR prevented the differentiation and mineralization functions of MSC, an effect we found was limited to this population as more differentiated OB-SC could still form mineralize nodules. This is in contrast to adipogenesis, which was inhibited in both IR-induced senescent MSC and 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes. Furthermore, we demonstrate that IR-induced loss of osteogenic potential in MSC was p53-dependent, a phenotype that correlates with the inability to upregulate key osteogenic transcription factors. These results are the first to demonstrate that senescence impacts osteogenesis in a cell type dependent manner and suggest that the accumulation of senescent osteoblasts is unlikely to significantly contribute to bone dysfunction in a cell autonomous manner.

Targeted Gene Addition of Microdystrophin in Mice Skeletal Muscle via Human Myoblast Transplantation.

Zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) can facilitate targeted gene addition to the genome while minimizing the risks of insertional mutagenesis. Here, we used a previously characterized ZFN pair targeting the chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 5 (CCR5) locus to introduce, as a proof of concept, the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) or the microdystrophin genes into human myoblasts. Using integrase-defective lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) and chimeric adenoviral vectors to transiently deliver template DNA and ZFN respectively, we achieved up to 40% targeted gene addition in human myoblasts. When the O(6)-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase(P140K) gene was co-introduced with eGFP, the frequency of cells with targeted integration could be increased to over 90% after drug selection. Importantly, gene-targeted myoblasts retained their mitogenic activity and potential to form myotubes both in vitro and in vivo when injected into the tibialis anterior of immune-deficient mice. Altogether, our results could lead to the development of improved cell therapy transplantation protocols for muscular diseases.Molecular Therapy - Nucleic Acids (2013) 2, e68; doi:10.1038/mtna.2012.55; published online 29 January 2013.

A soluble granulocyte colony stimulating factor decoy receptor as a novel tool to increase hematopoietic cell homing and reconstitution in mice.

The relative ineffectiveness of hematopoietic stem cells in reaching the bone marrow upon transplantation combined with the limited number of these cells available is a major reason for graft failure and delayed hematopoietic recovery. Hence, the development of strategies that could enhance homing is of high interest. Here, we provide evidence that homing is severely impaired postexposure to ionizing radiation (IR) in mice, an effect we found was time dependent and could be partially rescued using mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) therapy. In an attempt to further increase homing, we took advantage of our observation that the granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), a cytokine known to induce cell mobilization, is increased in the marrow of mice shortly after their exposure to IR. As such, we developed a truncated, yet functional, soluble G-CSF receptor (solG-CSFR), which we hypothesized could act as a decoy and foster homing. Using MSCs or conditioned media as delivery vehicles, we show that an engineered solG-CSFR has the potential to increase homing and hematopoietic reconstitution in mice. Altogether, our results provide novel findings at the interplay of IR and stromal cell therapy and present the regulation of endogenous G-CSF as an innovative proof-of-concept strategy to manipulate hematopoietic cell homing.

Expression of the senescence marker p16INK4a in skin biopsies of acute lymphoblastic leukemia survivors: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Most childhood cancer survivors will develop ionizing radiation treatment-related health conditions that, in many instances, resemble age-associated pathologies. Treatment-induced premature senescence could be an underlying mechanism. FINDINGS: Here we wanted to know whether the expression of p16INK4a, a senescence/aging biomarker, is increased in skin biopsies of acute lymphoblastic leukemia survivors (ALL), previously exposed to chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Several years post-treatments, we found p16INK4a mRNA levels are 5.8 times higher in scalp skin biopsies (targeted by cranial irradiation therapy) compared to buttocks skin biopsies (n = 10, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate for the first time that premature senescence is induced in pediatric cancer survivors and that p16INK4a expression could be used as a potential biomarker in this population.

p53-dependent release of Alarmin HMGB1 is a central mediator of senescent phenotypes.

Cellular senescence irreversibly arrests proliferation in response to potentially oncogenic stress. Senescent cells also secrete inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, which promote age-associated inflammation and pathology. HMGB1 (high mobility group box 1) modulates gene expression in the nucleus, but certain immune cells secrete HMGB1 as an extracellular Alarmin to signal tissue damage. We show that nuclear HMGB1 relocalized to the extracellular milieu in senescent human and mouse cells in culture and in vivo. In contrast to cytokine secretion, HMGB1 redistribution required the p53 tumor suppressor, but not its activator ATM. Moreover, altered HMGB1 expression induced a p53-dependent senescent growth arrest. Senescent fibroblasts secreted oxidized HMGB1, which stimulated cytokine secretion through TLR-4 signaling. HMGB1 depletion, HMGB1 blocking antibody, or TLR-4 inhibition attenuated senescence-associated IL-6 secretion, and exogenous HMGB1 stimulated NF-κB activity and restored IL-6 secretion to HMGB1-depleted cells. Our findings identify senescence as a novel biological setting in which HMGB1 functions and link HMGB1 redistribution to p53 activity and senescence-associated inflammation.

Therapeutic efficacy of cord blood-derived mesenchymal stromal cells for the prevention of acute graft-versus-host disease in a xenogenic mouse model.

Human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been successfully utilized for the treatment of refractory graft-versus-host disease (GvHD). Despite the large number of in vitro and in vivo models developed for clarifying their immunomodulatory properties, the mechanism of action of MSCs remains elusive and their efficacy controversial. Here, we tested the ability of cord blood-derived MSCs to alleviate the symptoms of GvHD induced by the injection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells into NOD/SCID/γc(-) mice. In this in vivo xeno-GvHD model, we demonstrate that a single MSC injection is able to inhibit GvHD in terms of clinical signs and related mortality. We also show that in this model MSCs act by both immunomodulating T-cells and fostering recovery after irradiation. The translational impact of these findings could provide a reliable preclinical model for studying the efficacy, dosage, and time of administration of human MSCs for the prevention of acute GvHD.

Telomeric DNA damage is irreparable and causes persistent DNA-damage-response activation.

The DNA-damage response (DDR) arrests cell-cycle progression until damage is removed. DNA-damage-induced cellular senescence is associated with persistent DDR. The molecular bases that distinguish transient from persistent DDR are unknown. Here we show that a large fraction of exogenously induced persistent DDR markers is associated with telomeric DNA in cultured cells and mammalian tissues. In yeast, a chromosomal DNA double-strand break next to a telomeric sequence resists repair and impairs DNA ligase 4 recruitment. In mammalian cells, ectopic localization of telomeric factor TRF2 next to a double-strand break induces persistent DNA damage and DDR. Linear, but not circular, telomeric DNA or scrambled DNA induces a prolonged checkpoint in normal cells. In terminally differentiated tissues of old primates, DDR markers accumulate at telomeres that are not critically short. We propose that linear genomes are not uniformly reparable and that telomeric DNA tracts, if damaged, are irreparable and trigger persistent DDR and cellular senescence.

Ionizing radiation-induced long-term expression of senescence markers in mice is independent of p53 and immune status.

Exposure to IR has been shown to induce the formation of senescence markers, a phenotype that coincides with lifelong delayed repair and regeneration of irradiated tissues. We hypothesized that IR-induced senescence markers could persist long-term in vivo, possibly contributing to the permanent reduction in tissue functionality. Here, we show that mouse tissues exposed to a sublethal dose of IR display persistent (up to 45 weeks, the maximum time analyzed) DNA damage foci and increased p16(INK4a) expression, two hallmarks of cellular senescence and aging. BrdU-labeling experiments revealed that IR-induced damaged cells are preferentially eliminated, at least partially, in a tissue-dependent manner. Unexpectedly, the accumulation of damaged cells was found to occur independent from the DNA damage response modulator p53, and from an intact immune system, as their levels were similar in wild-type and Rag2(-/-) gammaC(-/-) mice, the latter being deficient in T, B, and NK cells. Together, our results provide compelling evidence that exposure to IR induces long-term expression of senescence markers in vivo, an effect that may contribute to the reduced tissue functionality observed in cancer survivors.

A human-like senescence-associated secretory phenotype is conserved in mouse cells dependent on physiological oxygen.

Cellular senescence irreversibly arrests cell proliferation in response to oncogenic stimuli. Human cells develop a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which increases the secretion of cytokines and other factors that alter the behavior of neighboring cells. We show here that "senescent" mouse fibroblasts, which arrested growth after repeated passage under standard culture conditions (20% oxygen), do not express a human-like SASP, and differ from similarly cultured human cells in other respects. However, when cultured in physiological (3%) oxygen and induced to senesce by radiation, mouse cells more closely resemble human cells, including expression of a robust SASP. We describe two new aspects of the human and mouse SASPs. First, cells from both species upregulated the expression and secretion of several matrix metalloproteinases, which comprise a conserved genomic cluster. Second, for both species, the ability to promote the growth of premalignant epithelial cells was due primarily to the conserved SASP factor CXCL-1/KC/GRO-alpha. Further, mouse fibroblasts made senescent in 3%, but not 20%, oxygen promoted epithelial tumorigenesis in mouse xenographs. Our findings underscore critical mouse-human differences in oxygen sensitivity, identify conditions to use mouse cells to model human cellular senescence, and reveal novel conserved features of the SASP.

Secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor by primary human fibroblasts at senescence.

Cellular senescence prevents the proliferation of cells at risk for neoplastic transformation. Nonetheless, the senescence response is thought to be antagonistically pleiotropic and thus contribute to aging phenotypes, including, ironically, late life cancers. The cancer-promoting activity of senescent cells is likely due to secreted molecules, the identity of which remains largely unknown. Here, we have shown that senescent fibroblasts, much more than presenescent fibroblasts, stimulate tumor vascularization in mice. Weakly malignant epithelial cells co-injected with senescent fibroblasts had larger and greater numbers of blood vessels compared with controls. Accordingly, increased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression was a frequent characteristic of senescent human and mouse fibroblasts in culture. Importantly, conditioned medium from senescent fibroblasts, more than medium from presenescent cells, stimulates cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells to invade a basement membrane, a hallmark of angiogenesis. Increased VEGF expression was specific to the senescent phenotype and increased whether senescence was induced by replicative exhaustion, overexpression of p16(Ink4a), or overexpression of oncogenic RAS. The senescence-dependent increase in VEGF production was accompanied by very little increase in hypoxic-inducible (transcription) factor 1 alpha protein levels, and hypoxia further induced VEGF in senescent cells. This result suggests the rise in VEGF expression at senescence is not a hypoxic response. Our findings may in part explain why senescent cells stimulate tumorigenesis in vivo and support the idea that senescent cells may facilitate age-associated cancer development by secreting factors that promote malignant progression.