Why Do People (Not) Take Breaks? An Investigation of Individuals' Reasons for Taking and for Not Taking Breaks at Work.

Although breaks can help employees stay energized and maintain high levels of performance throughout the day, employees sometimes refrain from taking a break despite wanting to do so. Unfortunately, few studies have investigated individuals' reasons for taking and for not taking a break at work. To address this gap, we developed a model for predicting employees' break-taking behaviors. We developed hypotheses by integrating theories of work stress, self-regulation, and the results of a qualitative survey conducted as part of the current research (Study 1). Specifically, we predicted that high workloads would be positively related to the desire to detach from work, but that at the same time, high workloads would also deter employees from actually taking breaks. Furthermore, we predicted that employees would be less likely to act upon their desire to take a break within an environment where breaks are frowned upon by supervisors and coworkers, relative to an environment where breaks are allowed and encouraged. The results of a daily diary study of full-time employees (Study 2) provided general support for these predictions. Altogether, this research provides insights into the manner in which employees' psychological experiences and characteristics of the work environment combine to predict break-taking. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10869-022-09866-4.

Goal progress velocity as a determinant of shortcut behaviors.

Employees often have a great deal of work to accomplish within stringent deadlines. Therefore, employees may engage in shortcut behaviors, which involve eschewing standard procedures during goal pursuit to save time. However, shortcuts can lead to negative consequences such as poor-quality work, accidents, and even large-scale disasters. Despite these implications, few studies have investigated the antecedents of shortcut behaviors. In this research, we propose that employees engage in shortcut behaviors to regulate their velocity (i.e., rate of progress). Specifically, we predict that when individuals experience slower-than-referent velocity, they will (a) believe that the goal is unlikely to be met via standard procedures and (b) experience feelings of frustration. In turn, we expect these psychological states to be related to the perceived utility of shortcuts, especially when shortcuts are perceived as viable means to achieve the goal. Finally, we predict that the perceived utility of shortcuts will be positively related to actual shortcut behaviors. We tested these predictions using a laboratory experiment in which we manipulated velocity and unobtrusively observed shortcuts (Study 1, N = 147), as well as a daily diary study in which employees reported their velocity and shortcut behaviors over 5 consecutive workdays (Study 2, N = 395). Both studies provided support for our predictions. In sum, this research provides evidence to suggest that the experience of slow progress can lead to shortcuts not only by casting doubt on employees' perceived likelihood of meeting the goal but also by producing feelings of frustration. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The effects of contracting Covid-19 on cognitive failures at work: implications for task performance and turnover intentions.

Individuals who contract Covid-19 often experience problems with memory, attention, and concentration, even after recovering from the initial illness. In the current manuscript, we argue that these symptoms are likely to manifest as cognitive failures in the workplace. Downstream, cognitive failures were expected to be associated with decreased task performance and increased turnover intentions. We collected data from a sample of working adults who either had (n = 45) or had not (n = 49) contracted Covid-19 at least one month prior to the study. Both groups were matched on key demographic characteristics. As anticipated, individuals who had contracted Covid-19 reported significantly more cognitive failures at work, relative to individuals who did not. More so, having contracted Covid-19 had significant indirect effects on task performance and turnover intentions via cognitive failure. These results indicate that beyond physical harm, Covid-19 can also have a detrimental influence on an individual's capacity to perform at work.

Interpreting time-series COVID data: reasoning biases, risk perception, and support for public health measures.

Effective risk communication during the COVID-19 pandemic is critical for encouraging appropriate public health behaviors. One way that the public is informed about COVID-19 numbers is through reports of daily new cases. However, presenting daily cases has the potential to lead to a dynamic reasoning bias that stems from intuitive misunderstandings of accumulation. Previous work in system dynamics shows that even highly educated individuals with training in science and math misunderstand basic concepts of accumulation. In the context of COVID-19, relying on the single cue of daily new cases can lead to relaxed attitudes about the risk of COVID-19 when daily new cases begin to decline. This situation is at the very point when risk is highest because even though daily new cases have declined, the active number of cases are highest because they have been accumulating over time. In an experiment with young adults from the USA and Canada (N = 551), we confirm that individuals fail to understand accumulation regarding COVID-19, have less concern regarding COVID-19, and decrease endorsement for public health measures as new cases decline but when active cases are at the highest point. Moreover, we experimentally manipulate different dynamic data visualizations and show that presenting data highlighting active cases and minimizing new cases led to increased concern and increased endorsement for COVID-19 health measures compared to a control condition highlighting daily cases. These results hold regardless of country, political affiliation, and individual differences in decision making. This study has implications for communicating the risks of contracting COVID-19 and future public health issues.

Efficient proximal resource allocation strategies predict distal team performance: Evidence from the National Hockey League.

To achieve long-term goals, individuals, teams, and organizations must engage in numerous short-term performance episodes. This creates a trade-off between proximal and distal performance. On the one hand, allocating resources toward an episode typically facilitates performance in that episode, thereby contributing to distal success. On the other hand, allocating resources to one episode leaves fewer resources for subsequent episodes, thereby inhibiting distal success. We drew upon self-regulatory theories to predict that the trade-off between proximal and distal concerns is managed by allocating resources according to the demands of the situation. Specifically, we predicted that the tendency to allocate resources according to goal-performance discrepancies would improve distal performance. We tested our hypotheses using data from 5 National Hockey League (NHL) seasons. As expected, NHL teams used goal-performance discrepancies to allocate a key resource-playing time of their most valuable players. More importantly, between-team variance in resource allocation strategy accounted for significant variance in distal performance (end of season record). These results provide evidence that strategic reductions in resource allocation to proximal performance episodes is a fundamental self-regulatory process necessary for facilitating long-term success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Divergent effects of distance versus velocity disturbances on emotional experiences during goal pursuit.

Disturbances are factors outside of a person's control that influence goal progress. Although disturbances are typically included in theoretical accounts of goal pursuit, relatively little empirical research has explicitly considered the effects of disturbances on the goal-striving process. We address this gap in the literature by examining the effects that disturbances have on the emotional experience of goal pursuit. More importantly, we differentiate between distance disturbances (changes to the amount of progress made) and velocity disturbances (changes to the rate of progress made). We conducted 2 experiments (N = 62 and N = 134) in which participants completed work simulation tasks to earn a $5.00 reward. Partway through the experiment participants' progress was inhibited by either a distance disturbance or a velocity disturbance. Importantly, the distance and velocity disturbances were equated in terms of their influence on the likelihood of obtaining the cash prize. In both studies the introduction of a disturbance decreased enthusiasm and increased frustration. However, over time the effects of distance and velocity disturbances on enthusiasm and frustration diverged. Specifically, the velocity disturbance had a more enduring effect on these emotions, relative to the distance disturbance. Downstream, in Study 1 enthusiasm positively predicted goal commitment. In Study 2 enthusiasm positively predicted goal commitment, effort, and task performance. Likewise, in Study 2 frustration negatively predicted goal commitment and task performance. Therefore, relative to distance disturbances, velocity disturbances appear to be more disruptive to goal pursuit. We discuss theoretical implications and practical implications for managing employee motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record

State-level goal orientations as mediators of the relationship between time pressure and performance: a longitudinal study.

Goal orientations-the degree to which individuals are concerned with developing new skills, demonstrating already developed skills, and avoiding appearing foolish or incompetent-have been repeatedly shown to be important individual difference variables for performance across a range of contexts. In the current study, we identified perceptions of time pressure as a predictor of state goal orientations. Specifically, we posited that developing new skills may be conceived of as somewhat of a luxury-that is, mastery-oriented behaviors-are more likely to emerge when one is not under time pressure. On the other hand, when perceptions of time pressure increase, we expected individuals to be less willing to invest in development and instead to adopt more avoidant goals. Support for these predictions was found in a sample of undergraduate statistics students who were followed over the course of a 15-week academic semester. Specifically, perceptions of time pressure were negatively related to state mastery goal orientation and positively related to state performance-avoid goal orientation. Also, state goal orientations mediated the relationship between time pressure and performance. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of our results for motivational theory as well as how organizations can use the current results to mitigate the potentially detrimental effects of time pressure on performance.