Atp7b-dependent choroid plexus dysfunction causes transient copper deficit and metabolic changes in the developing mouse brain.

Copper (Cu) has a multifaceted role in brain development, function, and metabolism. Two homologous Cu transporters, Atp7a (Menkes disease protein) and Atp7b (Wilson disease protein), maintain Cu homeostasis in the tissue. Atp7a mediates Cu entry into the brain and activates Cu-dependent enzymes, whereas the role of Atp7b is less clear. We show that during postnatal development Atp7b is necessary for normal morphology and function of choroid plexus (ChPl). Inactivation of Atp7b causes reorganization of ChPl' cytoskeleton and cell-cell contacts, loss of Slc31a1 from the apical membrane, and a decrease in the length and number of microvilli and cilia. In ChPl lacking Atp7b, Atp7a is upregulated but remains intracellular, which limits Cu transport into the brain and results in significant Cu deficit, which is reversed only in older animals. Cu deficiency is associated with down-regulation of Atp7a in locus coeruleus and catecholamine imbalance, despite normal expression of dopamine-ß-hydroxylase. In addition, there are notable changes in the brain lipidome, which can be attributed to inhibition of diacylglyceride-to-phosphatidylethanolamine conversion. These results identify the new role for Atp7b in developing brain and identify metabolic changes that could be exacerbated by Cu chelation therapy.

Lysyl oxidase-like 2 depletion is protective in age-associated vascular stiffening.

Vascular stiffening and its sequelae are major causes of morbidity and mortality in the elderly. The increasingly accepted concept of "smooth muscle cell (SMC) stiffness syndrome" along with matrix deposition has emerged in vascular biology to account for the mechanical phenotype of arterial aging, but the molecular targets remain elusive. In this study, using an unbiased proteomic analysis, we identified lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) as a critical SMC mediator for age-associated vascular stiffening. We tested the hypothesis that loss of LOXL2 function is protective in aging-associated vascular stiffening. We determined that exogenous and endogenous nitric oxide markedly decreased LOXL2 abundance and activity in the extracellular matrix of isolated SMCs and LOXL2 endothelial cells suppress LOXL2 abundance in the aorta. In a longitudinal study, LOXL2+/- mice were protected from age-associated increase in pulse-wave velocity, an index of vascular stiffening, as occurred in littermate wild-type mice. Using isolated aortic segments, we found that LOXL2 mediates vascular stiffening in aging by promoting SMC stiffness, augmented SMC contractility, and vascular matrix deposition. Together, these studies establish LOXL2 as a nodal point for a new therapeutic approach to treat age-associated vascular stiffening. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Increased central vascular stiffness augments risk of major adverse cardiovascular events. Despite significant advances in understanding the genetic and molecular underpinnings of vascular stiffening, targeted therapy has remained elusive. Here, we show that lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2) drives vascular stiffening during aging by promoting matrix remodeling and vascular smooth muscle cell stiffening. Reduced LOXL2 expression protects mice from age-associated vascular stiffening and delays the onset of isolated systolic hypertension, a major consequence of stiffening.

OxLDL triggers retrograde translocation of arginase2 in aortic endothelial cells via ROCK and mitochondrial processing peptidase.

RATIONALE: Increased arginase activity contributes to endothelial dysfunction by competition for l-arginine substrate and reciprocal regulation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS). The rapid increase in arginase activity in human aortic endothelial cells exposed to oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) is consistent with post-translational modification or subcellular trafficking. OBJECTIVE: To test the hypotheses that OxLDL triggers reverse translocation of mitochondrial arginase 2 (Arg2) to cytosol and Arg2 activation, and that this process is dependent on mitochondrial processing peptidase, lectin-like OxLDL receptor-1 receptor, and rho kinase. METHODS AND RESULTS: OxLDL-triggered translocation of Arg2 from mitochondria to cytosol in human aortic endothelial cells and in murine aortic intima with a concomitant rise in arginase activity. All of these changes were abolished by inhibition of mitochondrial processing peptidase or by its siRNA-mediated knockdown. Rho kinase inhibition and the absence of the lectin-like OxLDL receptor-1 in knockout mice also ablated translocation. Aminoterminal sequencing of Arg2 revealed 2 candidate mitochondrial targeting sequences, and deletion of either of these confined Arg2 to the cytoplasm. Inhibitors of mitochondrial processing peptidase or lectin-like OxLDL receptor-1 knockout attenuated OxLDL-mediated decrements in endothelial-specific NO production and increases in superoxide generation. Finally, Arg2(-/-) mice bred on an ApoE(-/-) background showed reduced plaque load, reduced reactive oxygen species production, enhanced NO, and improved endothelial function when compared with ApoE(-/-) controls. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate dual distribution of Arg2, a protein with an unambiguous mitochondrial targeting sequence, in mammalian cells, and its reverse translocation to cytoplasm by alterations in the extracellular milieu. This novel molecular mechanism drives OxLDL-mediated arginase activation, endothelial NOS uncoupling, endothelial dysfunction, and atherogenesis.

Occurrence of a multimeric high-molecular-weight glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase in human serum.

Cellular glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a phylogenetically conserved, ubiquitous enzyme that plays an indispensable role in energy metabolism. Although a wealth of information is available on cellular GAPDH, there is a clear paucity of data on its extracellular counterpart (i.e., the secreted or extracellular GAPDH). Here, we show that the extracellular GAPDH in human serum is a multimeric, high-molecular-weight, yet glycolytically active enzyme. The high-molecular-weight multimers of serum GAPDH were identified by immunodetection on one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis using multiple antibodies specific for various epitopes of GAPDH. Partial purification of serum GAPDH by DEAE Affigel affinity/ion exchange chromatography further established the multimeric composition of serum GAPDH. In vitro data demonstrated that human cell lines secrete a multimeric, high-molecular-weight enzyme similar to that of serum GAPDH. Furthermore, LC-MS/MS analysis of extracellular GAPDH from human cell lines confirmed the presence of unique peptides of GAPDH in the high-molecular-weight subunits. Furthermore, data from pulse-chase experiments established the presence of high-molecular-weight subunits in the secreted, extracellular GAPDH. Taken together, our findings demonstrate the presence of a high-molecular-weight, enzymatically active secretory GAPDH in human serum that may have a hitherto unknown function in humans.

The plasma proteome identifies expected and novel proteins correlated with micronutrient status in undernourished Nepalese children.

Micronutrient deficiencies are common in undernourished societies yet remain inadequately assessed due to the complexity and costs of existing assays. A plasma proteomics-based approach holds promise in quantifying multiple nutrient:protein associations that reflect biological function and nutritional status. To validate this concept, in plasma samples of a cohort of 500 6- to 8-y-old Nepalese children, we estimated cross-sectional correlations between vitamins A (retinol), D (25-hydroxyvitamin D), and E (α-tocopherol), copper, and selenium, measured by conventional assays, and relative abundance of their major plasma-bound proteins, measured by quantitative proteomics using 8-plex iTRAQ mass tags. The prevalence of low-to-deficient status was 8.8% (<0.70 µmol/L) for retinol, 19.2% (<50 nmol/L) for 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 17.6% (<9.3 µmol/L) for α-tocopherol, 0% (<10 µmol/L) for copper, and 13.6% (<0.6 µmol/L) for selenium. We identified 4705 proteins, 982 in >50 children. Employing a linear mixed effects model, we observed the following correlations: retinol:retinol-binding protein 4 (r = 0.88), 25-hydroxyvitamin D:vitamin D-binding protein (r = 0.58), α-tocopherol:apolipoprotein C-III (r = 0.64), copper:ceruloplasmin (r = 0.65), and selenium:selenoprotein P isoform 1 (r = 0.79) (all P < 0.0001), passing a false discovery rate threshold of 1% (based on P value-derived q values). Individual proteins explained 34-77% (R(2)) of variation in their respective nutrient concentration. Adding second proteins to models raised R(2) to 48-79%, demonstrating a potential to explain additional variation in nutrient concentration by this strategy. Plasma proteomics can identify and quantify protein biomarkers of micronutrient status in undernourished children. The maternal micronutrient supplementation trial, from which data were derived as a follow-up activity, was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00115271.

Electrophilic tuning of the chemoprotective natural product sulforaphane.

Sulforaphane [1-isothiocyanato-4-(methylsulfinyl)butane], a naturally occurring isothiocyanate derived from cruciferous vegetables, is a highly potent inducer of phase 2 cytoprotective enzymes and can protect against electrophiles including carcinogens, oxidative stress, and inflammation. The mechanism of action of sulforaphane is believed to involve modifications of critical cysteine residues of Keap1, which lead to stabilization of Nrf2 to activate the antioxidant response element of phase 2 enzymes. However, the dithiocarbamate functional group formed by a reversible reaction between isothiocyanate of sulforaphane and sulfhydryl nucleophiles of Keap1 is kinetically labile, and such modification in intact cells has not yet been demonstrated. Here we designed sulforaphane analogs with replacement of the reactive isothiocyanate by the more gentle electrophilic sulfoxythiocarbamate group that also selectively targets cysteine residues in proteins but forms stable thiocarbamate adducts. Twenty-four sulfoxythiocarbamate analogs were synthesized that retain the structural features important for high potency in sulforaphane analogs: the sulfoxide or keto group and its appropriate distance to electrophilic functional group. Evaluation in various cell lines including hepatoma cells, retinal pigment epithelial cells, and keratinocytes as well as in mouse skin shows that these analogs maintain high potency and efficacy for phase 2 enzyme induction as well as the inhibitory effect on lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide formation like sulforaphane. We further show in living cells that a sulfoxythiocarbamate analog can label Keap1 on several key cysteine residues as well as other cellular proteins offering new insights into the mechanism of chemoprotection.

The C-Terminal of NaV1.7 Is Ubiquitinated by NEDD4L.

NaV1.7, the neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel isoform, plays an important role in the human body's ability to feel pain. Mutations within NaV1.7 have been linked to pain-related syndromes, such as insensitivity to pain. To date, the regulation and internalization mechanisms of the NaV1.7 channel are not well known at a biochemical level. In this study, we perform biochemical and biophysical analyses that establish that the HECT-type E3 ligase, NEDD4L, ubiquitinates the cytoplasmic C-terminal (CT) region of NaV1.7. Through in vitro ubiquitination and mass spectrometry experiments, we identify, for the first time, the lysine residues of NaV1.7 within the CT region that get ubiquitinated. Furthermore, binding studies with an NEDD4L E3 ligase modulator (ubiquitin variant) highlight the dynamic partnership between NEDD4L and NaV1.7. These investigations provide a framework for understanding how NEDD4L-dependent regulation of the channel can influence the NaV1.7 function.

A cell-free antigen processing system informs HIV-1 epitope selection and vaccine design.

Distinct CD4+ T cell epitopes have been associated with spontaneous control of HIV-1 replication, but analysis of antigen-dependent factors that influence epitope selection is lacking. To examine these factors, we used a cell-free antigen processing system that incorporates soluble HLA-DR (DR1), HLA-DM (DM), cathepsins, and full-length protein antigens for epitope identification by LC-MS/MS. HIV-1 Gag, Pol, Env, Vif, Tat, Rev, and Nef were examined using this system. We identified 35 novel epitopes, including glycopeptides. Epitopes from smaller HIV-1 proteins mapped to regions of low protein stability and higher solvent accessibility. HIV-1 antigens associated with limited CD4+ T cell responses were processed efficiently, while some protective epitopes were inefficiently processed. 55% of epitopes obtained from cell-free processing induced memory CD4+ T cell responses in HIV-1+ donors, including eight of 19 novel epitopes tested. Thus, an in vitro processing system utilizing the components of Class II processing reveals factors influencing epitope selection of HIV-1 and represents an approach to understanding epitope selection from non-HIV-1 antigens.

Oxidized CaMKII and O-GlcNAcylation cause increased atrial fibrillation in diabetic mice by distinct mechanisms.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and atrial fibrillation (AF) are major unsolved public health problems, and diabetes is an independent risk factor for AF. However, the mechanism(s) underlying this clinical association is unknown. ROS and protein O-GlcNAcylation (OGN) are increased in diabetic hearts, and calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII) is a proarrhythmic signal that may be activated by ROS (oxidized CaMKII, ox-CaMKII) and OGN (OGN-CaMKII). We induced type 1 (T1D) and type 2 DM (T2D) in a portfolio of genetic mouse models capable of dissecting the role of ROS and OGN at CaMKII and global OGN in diabetic AF. Here, we showed that T1D and T2D significantly increased AF, and this increase required CaMKII and OGN. T1D and T2D both required ox-CaMKII to increase AF; however, we did not detect OGN-CaMKII or a role for OGN-CaMKII in diabetic AF. Collectively, our data affirm CaMKII as a critical proarrhythmic signal in diabetic AF and suggest ROS primarily promotes AF by ox-CaMKII, while OGN promotes AF by a CaMKII-independent mechanism(s). These results provide insights into the mechanisms for increased AF in DM and suggest potential benefits for future CaMKII and OGN targeted therapies.

Synthetic Circular RNA Functions as a miR-21 Sponge to Suppress Gastric Carcinoma Cell Proliferation.

MicroRNA (miR) sponges containing miR binding sequences constitute a potentially powerful molecular therapeutic strategy. Recently, naturally occurring circular RNAs (circRNAs) were shown to function as efficient miR sponges in cancer cells. We hypothesized that synthetic circRNA sponges could achieve therapeutic loss-of-function targeted against specific miRs. Linear RNA molecules containing miR-21 binding sites were transcribed in vitro; after dephosphorylation and phosphorylation, circularization was achieved using 5'-3' end-ligation by T4 RNA ligase 1. circRNA stability was assessed using RNase R and fetal bovine serum. Competitive inhibition of miR-21 activity by a synthetic circRNA sponge was assessed using luciferase reporter, cell proliferation, and cell apoptosis assays in three gastric cancer cell lines. circRNA effects on downstream proteins were also delineated by Tandem Mass Tag (TMT) labeling (data available via ProteomeXchange identifier PRIDE: PXD008584), followed by western blotting. We conclude that artificial circRNA sponges resistant to nuclease digestion can be synthesized using simple enzymatic ligation steps. These sponges inhibit cancer cell proliferation and suppress the activity of miR-21 on downstream protein targets, including the cancer protein DAXX. In summary, synthetic circRNA sponges represent a simple, effective, convenient strategy for achieving targeted loss of miR function in vitro, with potential future therapeutic application in human patients.

Distorted Immunodominance by Linker Sequences or other Epitopes from a Second Protein Antigen During Antigen-Processing.

The immune system focuses on and responds to very few representative immunodominant epitopes from pathogenic insults. However, due to the complexity of the antigen processing, understanding the parameters that lead to immunodominance has proved difficult. In an attempt to uncover the determinants of immunodominance among several dominant epitopes, we utilized a cell free antigen processing system and allowed the system to identify the hierarchies among potential determinants. We then tested the results in vivo; in mice and in human. We report here, that immunodominance of known sequences in a given protein can change if two or more proteins are being processed and presented simultaneously. Surprisingly, we find that new spacer/tag sequences commonly added to proteins for purification purposes can distort the capture of the physiological immunodominant epitopes. We warn against adding tags and spacers to candidate vaccines, or recommend cleaving it off before using for vaccination.

Systemic administration of 3-bromopyruvate reveals its interaction with serum proteins in a rat model.

BACKGROUND: 3-bromopyruvate (3-BrPA) is a glycolytic inhibitor that affects cancer cells by targeting energy metabolism. Preclinical reports have established that a 1.75 mM dose of 3-BrPA is effective and sufficient to inhibit tumor growth when administered under a loco-regional approach (intraarterial and intratumoral). This loco-regional therapeutic dose was found to be nontoxic when given systemically as well. Yet, the mechanism underlying this lack of toxicity of 1.75 mM 3-BrPA during systemic delivery is unknown. Here, we investigated the mechanism associated with the lack of organ toxicity when 1.75 mM 3-BrPA was administered systemically using radiolabeled (14C)-3-BrPA in Sprague-Dawley rats. FINDINGS: Data obtained from tissue-autoradiography of rats infused with 14C-3-BrPA showed strong 14C-signal in tissue sections of various organs except the brain corroborating that 3-BrPA does not cross the blood-brain barrier. Significantly, Hematoxylin & Eosin staining and apoptosis assay of tissue sections positive for 14C-signal showed no signs of toxicity or apoptosis. Convincingly, the 14C-signal observed in tissue-autoradiography emanates from 3-BrPA that is non-reactive or non-toxic, hence we further investigated whether the lack of toxicity is due to its interaction or alkylation with serum components. Analysis of serum proteins by 1D and 2D-gel electrophoretic autoradiography showed that 14C-BrPA selectively binds to peptides of molecular mass ~50-60 kDa. Mass spectrometry data suggested that 14C-BrPA could interact with alpha1-antitrypsin and a peptide of albuminoid-family. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that selective interaction of 3-BrPA with serum proteins could contribute to the apparent lack of tissue-toxicity at the indicated close when the drug is given systematically in Sprague-Dawley rats.