Gathering momentum for the way ahead: fifth report of the Lancet Standing Commission on Liver Disease in the UK.

This report presents further evidence on the escalating alcohol consumption in the UK and the burden of liver disease associated with this major risk factor, as well as the effects on hospital and primary care. We reiterate the need for fiscal regulation by the UK Government if overall alcohol consumption is to be reduced sufficiently to improve health outcomes. We also draw attention to the effects of drastic cuts in public services for alcohol treatment, the repeated failures of voluntary agreements with the drinks industry, and the influence of the industry through its lobbying activities. We continue to press for reintroduction of the alcohol duty escalator, which was highly effective during the 5 years it was in place, and the introduction of minimum unit pricing in England, targeted at the heaviest drinkers. Results from the introduction of minimum unit pricing in Scotland, with results from Wales to follow, are likely to seriously expose the weakness of England's position. The increasing prevalence of obesity-related liver disease, the rising number of people diagnosed with type 2 diabetes and its complications, and increasing number of cases of end-stage liver disease and primary liver cancers from non-alcoholic fatty liver disease make apparent the need for an obesity strategy for adults. We also discuss the important effects of obesity and alcohol on disease progression, and the increased risk of the ten most common cancers (including breast and colon cancers). A new in-depth analysis of the UK National Health Service (NHS) and total societal costs shows the extraordinarily large expenditures that could be saved or redeployed elsewhere in the NHS. Excellent results have been reported for new antiviral drugs for hepatitis C virus infection, making elimination of chronic infection a real possibility ahead of the WHO 2030 target. However, the extent of unidentified cases remains a problem, and will also apply when new curative drugs for hepatitis B virus become available. We also describe efforts to improve standards of hospital care for liver disease with better understanding of current service deficiencies and a new accreditation process for hospitals providing liver services. New commissioning arrangements for primary and community care represent progress, in terms of effective screening of high-risk subjects and the early detection of liver disease.

What Is the Magnitude and Long-term Economic Cost of Care of the British Military Afghanistan Amputee Cohort?

BACKGROUND: Personal protection equipment, improved early medical care, and rapid extraction of the casualty have resulted in more injured service members who served in Afghanistan surviving after severe military trauma. Many of those who survive the initial trauma are faced with complex wounds such as multiple amputations. Although costs of care can be high, they have not been well quantified before. This is required to budget for the needs of the injured beyond their service in the armed forces. QUESTION/PURPOSES: The purposes of this study were (1) to quantify and describe the extent and nature of traumatic amputations of British service personnel from Afghanistan; and (2) to calculate an estimate of the projected long-term cost of this cohort. METHODS: A four-stage methodology was used: (1) systematic literature search of previous studies of amputee care cost; (2) retrospective analysis of the UK Joint Theatre Trauma and prosthetic database; (3) Markov economic algorithm for healthcare cost and sensitivity analysis of results; and (4) statistical cost comparison between our cohort and the identified literature. RESULTS: From 2003 to 2014, 265 casualties sustained 416 amputations. The average number of limbs lost per casualty was 1.6. The most common type of amputation was a transfemoral amputation (153 patients); the next most common amputation type was unilateral transtibial (143 patients). Using a Markov model of healthcare economics, it is estimated that the total 40-year cost of the UK Afghanistan lower limb amputee cohort is £288 million (USD 444 million); this figure estimates cost of trauma care, rehabilitation, and prosthetic costs. A sensitivity analysis on our model demonstrated a potential ± 6.19% variation in costs. CONCLUSIONS: The conflict in Afghanistan resulted in high numbers of complex injuries. Our findings suggest that a long-term facility to budget for veterans' health care is necessary. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Estimates here should be taken as the start of a challenge to develop sustained rehabilitation and recovery funding and provision.

The effectiveness gap in COPD: a mixed methods international comparative study.

BACKGROUND: There has been a large increase in treatment and in research on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) from the common starting point of the original Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) study. There is currently little evidence on the degree of similarity and difference between national programmes or on the linkage between research and policy. AIMS: To review the evidence on programme development and the effectiveness gap from the UK, France, Germany, and Finland. METHODS: Visits and literature reviews were undertaken for regional centres in Lancashire, Nord-Pas de Calais, and Finland, and Eurostat data on mortality and hospital discharges were analysed, and telephone interviews in Nord-Rhein Westphalia. RESULTS: There have been very significant differences in programme development from the original GOLD starting point. The UK has national strategies but they are without consistent local delivery. The French Affection de Longue Durée (ALD) programme limits special help to at most 10% of patients and there is little use of spirometry in primary care. Germany has a more general Disease Management Programme with COPD as a late starter. Finland has had a successful 10-year programme. The results for the effectiveness gap on hospital discharges show a major difference between Finland (40.7% fall in discharges) and others (increases of 6.0-43.7%). CONCLUSIONS: The results show the need for a simpler programme in primary care to close the effectiveness gap. Such a programme is outlined based on preventing the downward spiral for high-risk patients.

Improving the prevention and diagnosis of melanoma on a national scale: A comparative study of performance in the United Kingdom and Australia.

We undertook this study in light of an uncontrolled rise of melanoma incidence and mortality rates in the United Kingdom (UK). We aim to assess the effectiveness of prevention and early melanoma diagnosis in the UK's National Health Service (NHS) in comparison to the Australian system that has limited the melanoma rise. We compare the prevention campaigns against skin cancer and the stage at which melanoma is diagnosed. We analyse key drivers of early diagnosis. Overall, Australia has performed better than the UK and provides an example for the UK's NHS for better preventing melanoma and diagnosing it. Technologies under development, such as tele-dermatology and artificial intelligence applications, could aid in making melanoma early diagnosis easier, more cost-efficient, and lessen the burden on health systems. Diagnoses also provide the data to help public health officials target prevention programs.

The future of the NHS: Plan B.

The NHS for England now has future plans for the next 10 years: but the documents say little about the problems -likely to be encountered. The paper outlines two main -problems - the poor record for expanding services out of -hospital and the crowding out effect of hospital spending - and it sets out some directions for future action to make sure that development continues in the out-of-hospital space.

Loss, transition and trust: perspectives of terminally ill patients and their oncologists when transferring care from the hospital into the community at the end of life.

INTRODUCTION: Most people prefer to die at home. However, most continue to die in hospital. Little is known about the impact on the patient of transferring care from acute sector specialist follow-up to the community. In one cancer centre, a new service-Hospital2Home was set up to facilitate this transfer of care. This study aimed to explore patients' and oncologists' perspectives of the meanings involved in this transition. METHODS: Qualitative study using semistructured one-to-one interviews with 8 terminally ill cancer patients and 13 oncologists. The interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using the framework approach. RESULTS: 3 main themes were identified: loss, transition and community care. The theme of loss referred to losses associated with the end of treatment and losses associated with the familiar safe relationship between the patient and oncologist. Transition refers to the change from hospital-led to community-based care. Barriers to transition included patient and family acceptance, attachment and concerns about community services. Transition was more acceptable if initiated in a gradual manner. Community care: participants found the Hospital2Home service crucial in establishing new trustworthy relationships between community providers and the patient. CONCLUSIONS: Transfer of care from the acute sector to the community represents a delicate crossroad where complex notions of loss should not be underestimated. A gradual transfer of care may improve this if the patient's condition allows. Therefore, introductions to the community team should be timely, and a staggered transfer should be planned. This would improve the experience of the patient, carer and oncologist.

A descriptive follow-up interview study assessing patient-centred outcomes: Salford Lung Study in Asthma (SLS Asthma).

The Salford Lung Study in Asthma (SLS Asthma) was a multicentre, randomised, controlled, open-label trial that assessed initiating once-daily, single-inhaler fluticasone furoate/vilanterol (FF/VI) 100 µg/25 µg or 200 µg/25 µg versus continuing usual care. A subgroup (n = 400) from SLS Asthma was enrolled in this exploratory, interview-based follow-up study. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected via questionnaires. The primary objective was to capture patient-centred outcomes (symptom experience, quality of life [QoL], disease management behaviours) and patient experience. Secondary objectives were to assess the correlation of patient-reported outcomes with pre-defined variables from SLS Asthma (Asthma Control Test [ACT] score). The follow-up sample was representative of the SLS Asthma population; half reported asthma improvement during the study. Breathlessness was the most likely symptom to improve (47.8% of patients reported improvement). Most patients reported 'no change' in overall QoL (57.5%) and daily life domains (functioning 66.3%, activities 68.3%, relationships 86.8%, psychological 68.5%). Functioning was reported as the most frequently improved domain (29.8% of patients). Perceived improvement in asthma control (42.5%) and confidence (37.3%) was frequent. ACT responders (defined as patients achieving an ACT score ≥20 and/or an increase of ≥3 in ACT score from baseline at Week 52) were more likely to report asthma improvement (88.7% of patients reporting 'a lot' of improvement) than non-responders. Patients' asthma experiences generally improved during SLS Asthma. Clinical improvements were often associated with perceived improvement by patients, particularly among ACT responders.

Follow-up interviews from The Salford Lung Study (COPD) and analyses per treatment and exacerbations.

The Salford Lung Study in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (SLS COPD) was a 12-month, Phase III, open-label, randomised study comparing the effectiveness and safety of initiating once-daily fluticasone furoate 100 µg/vilanterol 25 µg (FF/VI) with continuing usual care (UC). Follow-up interviews were conducted among a subset of 400 patients who completed SLS COPD to further understand patients' experiences with treatment outcomes and the impact of COPD, and potential risk factors associated with higher rates of exacerbations during SLS COPD. Another objective was to explore how such patient-centred outcomes differed by randomised treatment. Patients' perceived control over COPD and effects on quality of life (QoL) were similar between treatment groups at the time of the follow-up interview, but more patients in the FF/VI group compared with UC reported perceived improvements in COPD control and QoL during the study. Of patients who experienced ≥2 exacerbations during SLS COPD, a greater percentage were women, were unemployed or homemakers, or were on long-term sick leave. Having ≥2 exacerbations also appeared to be associated with smoking, seeing a hospital specialist, a feeling of having no/little control over COPD, perceived worsening of feelings of control and reduced overall QoL since the start of the study, being aware of impending exacerbation occurrence and a more severe last exacerbation. Initiation of FF/VI was associated with a greater perceived improvement in patients' control of their COPD and QoL throughout SLS COPD than continuation of UC. Suggestions that smoking status and feelings of control are potentially related to exacerbation require further investigation.

Patient-reported outcomes with initiation of fluticasone furoate/vilanterol versus continuing usual care in the Asthma Salford Lung Study.

BACKGROUND: The Asthma Salford Lung Study demonstrated the effectiveness and safety of initiating once-daily inhaled fluticasone furoate/vilanterol (FF/VI) versus continuing usual care (UC) in asthma patients in UK primary care [1]. Here, we report a detailed analysis of patient-reported outcome (PRO) endpoints. METHODS: Adults with symptomatic asthma maintained on inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) ±â€¯long-acting beta2-agonists (LABA) were randomized 1:1 to initiate FF/VI (100 [200]/25 µg) or continue UC. PROs were measured using the Asthma Control Test (ACT), Standardized Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire (AQLQ [S]), Work Productivity and Activity Impairment: asthma questionnaire, and EQ-5D-3L (EuroQol 5-Dimensions 3-Levels) questionnaire, at timepoints across the 12-month study period. RESULTS: The individual components of ACT response (total score ≥20 or improvement from baseline ≥3) both contributed to the composite primary effectiveness endpoint at Week 24, with odds ratios favoring FF/VI over UC in both cases. Patients initiating FF/VI versus continuing UC were more likely to maintain/improve asthma control, regardless of baseline control status. The odds of patients being responders on AQLQ (S) total score and on individual AQLQ domains at Week 52 were significantly higher for FF/VI versus UC (all p < .001). FF/VI was associated with significantly greater reductions in overall work and activity impairment due to asthma (both p < .001), and a significantly greater change from baseline in EQ visual analogue scale score (p = .007), versus UC at Week 52. PRO findings were consistent across baseline ICS and ICS/LABA subsets. CONCLUSIONS: Initiation of FF/VI versus continuing UC was associated with consistent improvements in PROs.

Salford Lung Study in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (SLS COPD): follow-up interviews on patient-centred outcomes.

This study investigated patient perceptions, experiences and management of COPD throughout the SLS COPD study. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 400 patients who completed SLS COPD; a mixed-methods approach was used to collect quantitative and qualitative information. Structured interviews using closed-ended questions were conducted with 360 patients, detailing aspects of background/lifestyle information and COPD. Extended interviews containing open-ended questions on perceptions of COPD and quality of life (QoL) in addition to the closed-ended questions were completed by 40 further patients. Participants also completed the Adherence Starts with Knowledge-12 (ASK-12) and the COPD and Asthma Sleep Impact Scale (CASIS) questionnaire. Quantitative data were analysed descriptively; qualitative data were analysed using qualitative description. The participants (n = 400) were reasonably representative of the SLS COPD population; mean age was 66.2 years. Breathlessness was the most commonly recalled symptom of/associated with COPD (88.5% of patients) and was the symptom that changed the most (improved, 26.8%/worsened, 20.9%) throughout the study. Participants' daily functioning and activities were most affected by symptoms of/associated with COPD, followed by relationships and psychological issues. 66.5% of participants experienced exacerbations, 60.5% of whom reported self-management as their first treatment strategy (taking antibiotics, resting and/or corticosteroids). Qualitative analysis revealed COPD symptoms, breathlessness in particular, to have a significant impact on mobility and in turn QoL. In conclusion, breathlessness was cited in these interviews as the COPD symptom with the greatest impact on participants' daily functioning, activities and self-care. The findings provided significant additional knowledge to the SLS COPD study findings.

Increasing capacity for innovation in bureaucratic primary care organizations: a whole system participatory action research project.

PURPOSE: We wanted to identify what organizational features support innovation in Primary Care Groups (PCGs). METHODS: Our study used a whole system participatory action research model. Four research teams provided complementary insights. Four case study PCGs were analyzed. Two had an intervention to help local facilitators reflect on their work. Data included 70 key informant interviews, observations of clinical governance interventions and committee meetings, analysis of written materials, surveys and telephone interviews of London Primary Care Organizations, interviews with 20 nurses, and interviews with 6 finance directors. A broad range of stakeholders reviewed data at annual conferences and formed conclusions about trustworthy principles. Sequential research phases were refocused in the light of these conclusions and in response to the changing political context. RESULTS: Five features were associated with increased organizational capacity for innovation: (1) clear structures and a vision for corporate and clinical governance; (2) multiple opportunities for people to reflect and learn at all levels of the organization, and connections between these "learning spaces"; (3) both clinicians and managers in leadership roles that encourage participation; (4) the right timing for an initiative and its adaptation to the local context; and (5) external facilitation that provides opportunities for people to make sense of their experiences. Low morale was commonly attributed to 3 features: (1) overwhelming pace of reform, (2) inadequate staff experience and supportive infrastructure, and (3) financial deficits. CONCLUSIONS: These features together may support innovation in other primary care bureaucracies. The research methodology enabled people from different backgrounds to make sense of diverse research insights.

Treatment of anaemia in cancer patients: implications for supportive care in the National Health Service Cancer Plan.

The National Health Service (NHS) Cancer Plan published in 2000 has a short-term focus on the most pressing problems of improving survival rates and replacing equipment. It also mentioned as a target 'improved quality of life for those affected by cancer'. Continuity of care for longer-term care programmes was seen predominantly in terms of palliative care. Recent National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) reports may have reinforced this approach by focussing on the clinical and cost effectiveness of chemotherapy for late-stage cancer. The impact on local decision-makers has been that drug funds have been prioritised for use on survival-enhancing interventions, with few resources left for short and longer-term supportive care targeted primarily on improving quality of life. Within supportive care, resources are particularly limited for funding treatments such as erythropoietin for the management of cancer-related anaemia, a common and very debilitating side-effect of intensive therapy. The need for a re-focusing on supportive care is associated with cancer becoming, in many instances, a longer-term illness. The prevalence of cancer is rising markedly due to increased survival rates. However, this creates a new challenge of reducing disability and improving quality of life. In surveys, patients have rated fatigue associated with anaemia as one of the most debilitating effects of their cancer and its treatment with chemotherapy. This paper reviews the evidence demonstrating the quality of life benefits of erythropoietin, and then considers the policy constraints that have limited the adoption of this treatment within the NHS. Through co-ordinated planning there are opportunities for cancer networks and primary care trusts (PCTs) working with cancer centres to develop more support in ways which are feasible and fundable. The case is argued that PCTs and cancer networks, in implementing the Cancer Plan locally, need to integrate short- and longer-term supportive care into their cancer service development plans, and recognise the importance of anaemia management as an integral part of this. Lessons can be learnt from UK renal services where anaemia management with erythropoietin is standard practice.

Costs and cost effectiveness of low molecular weight heparins and platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors: in the management of acute coronary syndromes.

The most well established antithrombotic treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) is unfractionated heparin (UFH) plus aspirin, but such treatment may not prevent arterial thrombotic events. Low molecular weight heparins (LMWHs) and platelet glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors offer alternative or adjunctive treatments. However, before these alternatives with higher acquisition costs are accepted in today's healthcare systems, their cost effectiveness must be proven. This paper reviews international pharmacoeconomic studies on the use of LMWHs and GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors in patients with ACS in an attempt to determine whether these therapies are cost effective. Most of the studies on LMWHs have been cost-minimisation analyses and have focused on enoxaparin sodium, because this is the only LMWH proven to be superior to UFH. Several analyses show that, compared with UFH plus aspirin, enoxaparin sodium provides cost savings both during hospitalisation (30 days) and 1-year follow-up. These cost savings are mainly attributable to fewer cardiac interventions, shorter hospital stays and lower administrative costs. Indeed, the clinical and economic advantages of enoxaparin sodium have led to its recommendation in recent guidelines as the antithrombotic agent of choice for coronary artery disease. Most of the economic analyses of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors have been cost-effectiveness analyses. Such analyses indicate that the high acquisition costs of these drugs may be at least partially offset by reductions in other costs if a noninvasive approach to risk stratification is used. Furthermore, use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors appears to give favourable cost-effectiveness ratios compared with other accepted therapies, such as fibrin-specific thrombolytic therapy, in the cardiovascular field, particularly in high-risk patients and those undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. However, more comprehensive economic data on the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors are needed.

Cost-effectiveness: seeking value for money in lower extremity wound management.

This article discusses the different methods of evaluating cost in relation to the outcomes of treatment, and reviews the evidence of cost-effectiveness (CE) in the management of chronic leg ulceration. In essence, the CE argument revolves around the need to demonstrate outcomes of treatment in relation to particular levels of financial input by the health providers. High CE allows for either the same number of patients to be treated more efficiently (at a lower cost) or more patients to be treated for the same financial input. A review of medical and nursing databases (Medline, Embase, and Cinahl) identified studies of CE of dressing materials (n = 8), use of compression therapy (n = 4), and other treatments (n = 2). In addition, 5 research groups have undertaken studies to evaluate the relative CE of different systems of care. Overall conclusions are that modern wound dressings provide a more cost-effective alternative to saline gauze, whereas the evidence relating to the use of tissue-engineered skin is less clear. The use of compression bandaging is substantially more cost-effective when compared with a system of care where compression is not systematically offered. The systems that offer compression are not only cost-effective but also lead to reductions in absolute cost. The evaluation of CE is likely to become an ever-increasing part of wound care evaluation as we strive to achieve greater efficiency in the use of scarce health resources.

Modern dressings: healing surgical wounds by secondary intention.

There is a lack of robust research evidence on many aspects of wound care. The inaugural Professional Select Committee on Wound Care, held at the Royal College of Surgeons, explored the relative value of modern and traditional dressings in treating wounds healing by secondary intention. This article outlines its main findings.