Epidemiological and cohort study finds no association between COVID-19 and Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Reports of Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) have emerged during the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This epidemiological and cohort study sought to investigate any causative association between COVID-19 infection and GBS. The epidemiology of GBS cases reported to the UK National Immunoglobulin Database was studied from 2016 to 2019 and compared to cases reported during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were stratified by hospital trust and region, with numbers of reported cases per month. UK population data for COVID-19 infection were collated from UK public health bodies. In parallel, but separately, members of the British Peripheral Nerve Society prospectively reported incident cases of GBS during the pandemic at their hospitals to a central register. The clinical features, investigation findings and outcomes of COVID-19 (definite or probable) and non-COVID-19 associated GBS cases in this cohort were compared. The incidence of GBS treated in UK hospitals from 2016 to 2019 was 1.65-1.88 per 100 000 individuals per year. GBS incidence fell between March and May 2020 compared to the same months of 2016-19. GBS and COVID-19 incidences during the pandemic also varied between regions and did not correlate with one another (r = 0.06, 95% confidence interval: -0.56 to 0.63, P = 0.86). In the independent cohort study, 47 GBS cases were reported (COVID-19 status: 13 definite, 12 probable, 22 non-COVID-19). There were no significant differences in the pattern of weakness, time to nadir, neurophysiology, CSF findings or outcome between these groups. Intubation was more frequent in the COVID-19 affected cohort (7/13, 54% versus 5/22, 23% in COVID-19-negative) attributed to COVID-19 pulmonary involvement. Although it is not possible to entirely rule out the possibility of a link, this study finds no epidemiological or phenotypic clues of SARS-CoV-2 being causative of GBS. GBS incidence has fallen during the pandemic, which may be the influence of lockdown measures reducing transmission of GBS inducing pathogens such as Campylobacter jejuni and respiratory viruses.

Two recurrent mutations are associated with GNE myopathy in the North of Britain.

OBJECTIVE: GNE myopathy is a rare recessive myopathy associated with inclusion bodies on muscle biopsy. The clinical phenotype is associated with distal muscle weakness with quadriceps sparing. Most of the current information on GNE myopathy has been obtained through studies of Jewish and Japanese patient cohorts carrying founder mutations in the GNE gene. However, little is known about GNE myopathy in Europe where the prevalence is thought to be very low. METHODS: Patients were referred through the National Specialist Commissioning Team service for limb-girdle muscular dystrophies at Newcastle (UK). All patients harbouring mutations in the GNE gene were recruited for our study. Detailed clinical and genetic data as well as muscle MRIs and muscle biopsies were reviewed. RESULTS: We identified 26 patients harbouring mutations in the GNE gene. Two previously reported mutations (c.1985C>T, p.Ala662Val and c.1225G>T, p.Asp409Tyr) were prevalent in the Scottish, Northern Irish and Northern English populations; with 90% of these patients carrying at least one of the two mutations. Clinically, we confirmed the homogenous pattern of selective quadriceps sparing but noted additional features like asymmetry of weakness at disease onset. CONCLUSIONS: GNE myopathy is an important diagnosis to consider in patients presenting with distal leg muscle weakness. We report, for the first time, two common mutations in the north of Britain and highlight the broader spectrum of clinical phenotypes. We also propose that the prevalence of GNE myopathy may be underestimated due to the frequent absence of rimmed vacuoles in the muscle biopsy.

The modified rankin scale to assess disability in myasthenia gravis: Comparing with other tools.

INTRODUCTION: We explored the modified Rankin scale (mRS) as a tool to quantitate disability in myasthenia gravis (MG). Our aim was to correlate patients' perception of their disability with that of the care provider and determine its relationship with other MG-related scores. METHODS: We evaluated 107 MG patients at 2 neurological centers. Patients were assessed over the telephone before and after clinic visits using the 15-item Myasthenia Gravis Quality-of-Life index (MG-QOL15) and mRS. At the clinic, patients were assessed using the MG-QOL15, MG Composite (MGC), and mRS. RESULTS: The MG-QOL15 correlated with the MGC, mRS, and assessors' scores of patients. Assessors' perception of disease burden was in line with that of the patients' scoring. MG-QOL15 scores obtained over the telephone were consistent with those obtained in the clinic. Scores were generally higher in patients receiving steroids at >5 mg/day and in those receiving or seeking benefits. CONCLUSION: The MG-QOL15 and mRS are useful for estimating disability in MG.

The phenotypic and genotypic features of a Scottish cohort with McArdle disease.

This retrospective study evaluated the phenotypic and genotypic features of 14 patients with McArdle disease attending the West of Scotland adult muscle clinic. Although all patients experienced exercise-induced cramps, exercise intolerance and hyperCKaemia, only 71% (n = 10) experienced the second wind phenomenon, rhabdomyolysis and/or myoglobinuria. We observed a high rate of fixed muscle weakness (50%; n = 7), coronary artery disease (36%; n = 5), and psychological comorbidity (50%; n = 7). Although 79% had symptom onset in the first decade of life, the mean age at presentation and at genetic diagnosis was 43.8 years and 47.7 years, respectively. 93% had at least one copy of the common PYGM pathogenic variant, c.148C > T, p.(Arg50*), with 50% (n = 7) of the cohort being homozygous. Our cohort highlights the phenotypic variability seen in McArdle disease and underscores the potential for late-onset presentations. It emphasises the need for improved awareness and recognition of this condition amongst neurologists, rheumatologists and general physicians. A history of exercise intolerance and second wind phenomenon may not always be volunteered by the patient, underscoring the need to ask specific questions in clinic to extrapolate the relevant symptoms in this patient cohort.

Analysis of lectin binding to glycolipid complexes using combinatorial glycoarrays.

Glycolipids are major components of the plasma membrane, interacting with themselves, other lipids, and proteins to form an array of heterogeneous domains with diverse biological properties. Considerable effort has been focused on identifying protein binding partners for glycolipids and the glycan specificity for these interactions, largely achieved through assessing interactions between proteins and homogenous, single species glycolipid preparations. This approach risks overlooking both the enhancing and attenuating roles of heterogeneous glycolipid complexes in modulating lectin binding. Here we report a simple method for assessing lectin-glycolipid interactions. An automatic thin-layer chromatography sampler is employed to create easily reproducible arrays of glycolipids and their heterodimeric complexes immobilized on a synthetic polyvinyl-difluoride membrane. This array can then be probed with much smaller quantities of reagents than would be required using existing techniques such as ELISA and thin-layer chromatography with immuno-overlay. Using this protocol, we have established that the binding of bacterial toxins, lectins, and antibodies can each be attenuated, enhanced, or unaffected in the presence of glycolipid complexes, as compared with individual, isolated glycolipids. These findings underpin the wide-ranging influence and importance of glycolipid-glycolipid cis interactions when the nature of protein-carbohydrate recognition events is being assessed.

Myelin protein zero mutations and the unfolded protein response in Charcot Marie Tooth disease type 1B.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of MPZ mutations that cause Charcot Marie Tooth neuropathy type 1B (CMT1B) and activate the unfolded protein Response (UPR). BACKGROUND: CMT1B is caused by >200 heterozygous mutations in MPZ, the major protein in peripheral nerve myelin. Mutations Ser63del MPZ and Arg98Cys MPZ cause the mutant protein to be retained in the ER and activate the generally adaptive UPR. Treatments that modulate UPR activation have improved cellular and rodent models of CMT1B raising the possibility that other MPZ mutations that activate the UPR would also respond favorably to similar treatment. The prevalence of MPZ mutations that activate the UPR is unknown. METHODS: We developed a dual luciferase reporter assay of Xbp1 splicing using stably transfected RT4 Schwann cells to assay the ability of cDNA constructs bearing 46 distinct MPZ mutations to activate the UPR. Constructs also carried an HA tag to permit detection of ER retention of mutant proteins. UPR activation and ER retention were correlated with clinical phenotypes. RESULTS: Eighteen mutations demonstrated ER retention and UPR activation to a similar degree as Ser63del and Arg98Cys MPZ. Thirty-five of the mutations activated the UPR > 1.5 fold compared to that of wild-type MPZ. Correlation was high between firefly and Nano-luciferase reporters and between both reporters and ER localization. UPR activity did not correlate with clinical onset or severity. CONCLUSION: Many CMT1B causing mutations activate the UPR and may be susceptible to therapeutic efforts to facilitate UPR function.

Demyelinating CMT--what's known, what's new and what's in store?

Inherited neuropathies known collectively as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease are one of the most common inherited neurological conditions affecting ∼1 in 2500 people. A heterogenous disorder, CMT is divided into subtypes based on the pattern of inheritance and also by neurophysiological studies. Despite the clinical similarities among patients with demyelinating CMT, it is recognized that this group of disorders is both genetically and phenotypically heterogenous. Understanding the pathogenesis of these disorders requires an intimate knowledge of normal myelin development and homeostasis. Improvements in genetic testing techniques over the last 20 years have contributed majorly to the identification of specific genes, proteins, and molecular pathways that are providing the basis for understanding the disease processes and developing rational approaches to therapy.

Reduced neurofilament expression in cutaneous nerve fibers of patients with CMT2E.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of NEFL Glu396Lys mutation on the expression and assembly of neurofilaments (NFs) in cutaneous nerve fibers of patients with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2E (CMT2E). METHODS: A large family with CMT2E underwent clinical, electrophysiologic, and skin biopsy studies. Biopsies were processed by indirect immunofluorescence (IF), electron microscopy (EM), and Western blot analysis. RESULTS: The clinical features demonstrated intrafamilial phenotypic variability, and the electrophysiologic findings revealed nerve conductions that were either slow or in the intermediate range. All patients had reduced or absent compound muscular action potential amplitudes. Skin biopsies showed axons labeled with the axonal markers protein gene product 9.5 and α-tubulin, but not with NFs. The results of Western blot analysis were consistent with those of IF, showing reduced or absent NFs and normal expression of α-tubulin. EM revealed clusters of regenerated fibers, in absence of myelin sheath abnormalities. Both IF and EM failed to show NF aggregates in dermal axons. The morphometric analysis showed a smaller axonal caliber in patients than in controls. The study of the nodal/paranodal architecture demonstrated that sodium channels and Caspr were correctly localized in patients with CMT2E. CONCLUSIONS: Decrease in NF abundance may be a pathologic marker of CMT2E. The lack of NF aggregates, consistent with prior studies, suggests that they occur proximally leading to subsequent alterations in the axonal cytoskeleton. The small axonal caliber, along with the normal molecular architecture of nodes and paranodes, explain the reduced velocities detected in patients with CMT2E. Our results also demonstrate that skin biopsy can provide evidence of pathologic and pathogenic abnormalities in patients with CMT2E.

Absence of Dystrophin Related Protein-2 disrupts Cajal bands in a patient with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.

Using exome sequencing in an individual with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) we have identified a mutation in the X-linked dystrophin-related protein 2 (DRP2) gene. A 60-year-old gentleman presented to our clinic and underwent clinical, electrophysiological and skin biopsy studies. The patient had clinical features of a length dependent sensorimotor neuropathy with an age of onset of 50 years. Neurophysiology revealed prolonged latencies with intermediate conduction velocities but no conduction block or temporal dispersion. A panel of 23 disease causing genes was sequenced and ultimately was uninformative. Whole exome sequencing revealed a stop mutation in DRP2, c.805C>T (Q269*). DRP2 interacts with periaxin and dystroglycan to form the periaxin-DRP2-dystroglycan complex which plays a role in the maintenance of the well-characterized Cajal bands of myelinating Schwann cells. Skin biopsies from our patient revealed a lack of DRP2 in myelinated dermal nerves by immunofluorescence. Furthermore electron microscopy failed to identify Cajal bands in the patient's dermal myelinated axons in keeping with ultrastructural pathology seen in the Drp2 knockout mouse. Both the electrophysiologic and dermal nerve twig pathology support the interpretation that this patient's DRP2 mutation causes characteristic morphological abnormalities recapitulating the Drp2 knockout model and potentially represents a novel genetic cause of CMT.

Antibodies to heteromeric glycolipid complexes in Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Autoantibodies are infrequently detected in the sera of patients with the demyelinating form of Guillain-Barré syndrome most commonly encountered in the Western world, despite abundant circumstantial evidence suggesting their existence. We hypothesised that antibody specificities reliant on the cis interactions of neighbouring membrane glycolipids could explain this discrepancy, and would not have been detected by traditional serological assays using highly purified preparations of single gangliosides. To assess the frequency of glycolipid complex antibodies in a Western European cohort of patients GBS we used a newly developed combinatorial glycoarray methodology to screen against large range of antigens (11 gangliosides, 8 other single glycolipids and 162 heterodimeric glycolipid complexes). Serum samples of 181 patients from a geographically defined, Western European cohort of GBS cases were analysed, along with 161 control sera. Serum IgG binding to single gangliosides was observed in 80.0% of axonal GBS cases, but in only 11.8% of cases with demyelinating electrophysiology. The inclusion of glycolipid complexes increased the positivity rate in demyelinating disease to 62.4%. There were 40 antigens with statistically significantly increased binding intensities in GBS as compared to healthy control sera. Of these, 7 complex antigens and 1 single ganglioside also produced statistically significantly increased binding intensities in GBS versus neurological disease controls. The detection of antibodies against specific complexes was associated with particular clinical features including disease severity, requirement for mechanical ventilation, and axonal electrophysiology. This study demonstrates that while antibodies against single gangliosides are often found in cases with axonal-type electrophysiology, antibodies against glycolipid complexes predominate in cases with demyelinating electrophysiology, providing a more robust serum biomarker than has ever been previously available for such cases. This work confirms the activation of the humoral immune system in the dysimmune disease process in GBS, and correlates patterns of antigen recognition with different clinical features.

Combinatorial glycoarray.

Glycolipid-protein interactions are increasingly recognised as critical to numerous and diverse biological processes, including immune recognition, cell-cell signalling, pathogen adherence, and virulence factor binding. Previously, such carbohydrate-lectin interactions have been assessed in vitro largely by assaying protein binding against purified preparations of single glycolipids. Recent observations show that certain disease-associated autoantibodies and other lectins bind only to complexes formed by two different gangliosides. However, investigating such 1:1 glycolipid complexes can prove technically arduous. To address this problem, we have developed a semi-automated system for assaying lectin binding to large numbers of glycolipid complexes simultaneously. This employs an automated thin-layer chromatography sampler. Single glycolipids and their heterodimeric complexes are prepared in microvials. The autosampler is then used to print reproducible arrays of glycolipid complexes onto polyvinylidene difluoride membranes affixed to glass slides. A printing density of 300 antigen spots per slide is achievable. Following overnight drying, these arrays can then be probed with the lectin(s) of interest. Detection of binding is by way of a horseradish peroxidase-linked secondary antibody driving a chemiluminescent reaction rendered on radiographic film. Image analysis software can then be used to measure signal intensity for quantification.

Lipid arrays identify myelin-derived lipids and lipid complexes as prominent targets for oligoclonal band antibodies in multiple sclerosis.

The presence of oligoclonal bands of IgG (OCB) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is used to establish a diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (MS), but their specificity has remained an enigma since its first description over forty years ago. We now report that the use of lipid arrays identifies heteromeric complexes of myelin derived lipids as a prominent target for this intrathecal B cell response.

The neuropathic potential of anti-GM1 autoantibodies is regulated by the local glycolipid environment in mice.

Anti-GM1 ganglioside autoantibodies are used as diagnostic markers for motor axonal peripheral neuropathies and are believed to be the primary mediators of such diseases. However, their ability to bind and exert pathogenic effects at neuronal membranes is highly inconsistent. Using human and mouse monoclonal anti-GM1 antibodies to probe the GM1-rich motor nerve terminal membrane in mice, we here show that the antigenic oligosaccharide of GM1 in the live plasma membrane is cryptic, hidden on surface domains that become buried for a proportion of anti-GM1 antibodies due to a masking effect of neighboring gangliosides. The cryptic GM1 binding domain was exposed by sialidase treatment that liberated sialic acid from masking gangliosides including GD1a or by disruption of the live membrane by freezing or fixation. This cryptic behavior was also recapitulated in solid-phase immunoassays. These data show that certain anti-GM1 antibodies exert potent complement activation-mediated neuropathogenic effects, including morphological damage at living terminal motor axons, leading to a block of synaptic transmission. This occurred only when GM1 was topologically available for antibody binding, but not when GM1 was cryptic. This revised understanding of the complexities in ganglioside membrane topology provides a mechanistic account for wide variations in the neuropathic potential of anti-GM1 antibodies.