Reverse shoulder arthroplasty with a 155° neck-shaft angle inlay implant design without reattachment of the subscapularis tendon results in satisfactory functional internal rotation and no instability: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to use the Activities of Daily Living which require Internal Rotation (ADLIR) questionnaire to assess the functional internal rotation in patients who had undergone reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) without reattachment of the subscapularis (SSc) tendon at a minimum follow-up of 2 years. The secondary aim was to report the objective range of motion (ROM) and the rate of postoperative instability. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All consecutive primary RSA procedures without reattachment of the SSc tendon that were performed using a Delta Xtend prosthesis (an inlay system with a 155° neck-shaft angle) between January 2015 and December 2020 were identified to ensure a minimum follow-up of 2 years. Patients were contacted and requested to fill in several questionnaires, including the ADLIR and Auto-Constant scores. RESULTS: In total, 210 patients met the inclusion criteria; among those patients, 187 could be contacted and 151 completed questionnaires (response rate: 81%). The SSc tendon was fully detached without repair in all cases, and a superolateral approach was used in 130 (86%) cases. The median follow-up was 4.5 years (range: 2.0-7.6). At final follow-up, the mean ADLIR score was 88/100 (interquartile range (IQR): 81-96). The median level reached in internal rotation was the 3rd lumbar vertebra (IQR: lumbosacral region-12th thoracic vertebra). Of the 210 eligible patients, one required a revision for a dislocation within the first month after primary surgery. With regards to regression analysis with ADLIR score as the outcome, none of the factors were associated with the ADLIR score, although age and smoking approached significance (0.0677 and 0.0594, respectively). None of the explanatory variables were associated with ROM in internal rotation (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that satisfactory ADLIR scores and internal rotation ROM were obtained at mid-term follow-up after RSA leaving the SSc detached. Leaving the SSc detached also did not lead to high instability rates; only one out of 210 prostheses was revised for dislocation within the first month after primary surgery.

Functional and radiographic outcomes of reverse shoulder arthroplasty with a minimum follow-up of 10 years.

BACKGROUND: The use of reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA) is becoming increasingly prevalent. However, few studies have been published reporting the long-term outcomes of RSA. This study aims to report the clinical, radiographic, and patient-reported outcomes of the Delta Xtend reverse shoulder prosthesis, performed by a single surgeon and with a minimum follow-up of 10 years. METHODS: All RSA procedures performed between 2005 and 2012 were identified. Patients were contacted and invited for a follow-up visit including clinical assessment, radiographs, and patient-reported outcome measures. Patients with a follow-up of less than 10 years were excluded. The revision-free implant survival was calculated at 10 years. Between 2005 and 2012, 119 procedures in 116 patients meeting inclusion criteria were identified. Of these patients, 35 were deceased before reaching the 10-year follow-up and 23 could not be reached. In total, 63 RSAs could be included in 61 patients (response rate: 75%). The median follow-up was 11.7 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 10.5-13.2). RESULTS: Of the 61 patients, 7 patients underwent a revision after a median of 3 years (IQR: 0.2-9.8) during the total follow-up period. The 10-year implant survival was 94% (95% confidence interval: 84-98). At final follow-up, the median anterior elevation was 135° (IQR: 130°-160°), the median abduction was 120° (IQR: 100°-135°), and the median level reached with internal rotation was L5 (IQR: sacrum-L5). The median Auto-Constant score was 68 (IQR: 53-78), the median Subjective Shoulder Value was 80 (IQR: 70-93), and the median pain score was 0.2/10 (IQR: 0-2). In total, radiographs could be obtained in 25 patients (40%). Scapular notching occurred in 10 patients (40%), which was classified as Sirveaux-Nerot grade IV in 3 patients (12%). Ossification occurred in 10 patients (40%), and stress shielding in 2 patients (8%). Radiolucencies were observed around the humeral component in 24 patients (96%) and around the glenoid component in 13 patients (52%). CONCLUSION: The long-term results of RSA with a Delta Xtend prosthesis are favorable, with long-term improvement in range of motion and patient-reported outcome measures, and a satisfactory implant survival rate. Interestingly, the radiographical analysis showed high prevalence of signs associated with loosening, which did not seem to translate to high complication rates or inferior results.

Prospective Cohort Study to Investigate Factors Associated With Continued Immobilization of a Nondisplaced Scaphoid Waist Fracture.

PURPOSE: The decision to continue immobilization of a nondisplaced scaphoid waist fracture is often based on radiographic appearance (despite evidence that radiographs are unreliable and inaccurate for diagnosing scaphoid union 6-12 weeks after fracture) and fracture tenderness (even though it is influenced by cognitive biases on pain). This may result in unhelpful additional immobilization. We studied nondisplaced scaphoid waist fractures to determine the factors associated with (1) the surgeon's decision to continue cast or splint immobilization at the first visit when cast removal was being considered; (2) greater pain on examination; and (3) the surgeon's concern about radiographic consolidation. METHODS: We prospectively included 46 patients with a nondisplaced scaphoid waist fracture treated nonoperatively. At the first visit when cast removal was considered - after an average of 6 weeks of immobilization - patients rated pain during 4 examination maneuvers. The treating surgeon assessed union on radiographs and decided whether to continue or discontinue immobilization. Patients completed measures of the following: (1) the degree to which pain limits activities (Patient-Reported Outcome Measure Interactive System [PROMIS] Pain Interference Computer Adaptive Test [CAT], Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire-2); (2) symptoms of depression (PROMIS Depression CAT); and (3) upper extremity function (PROMIS Upper Extremity Function CAT). We used multivariable regression analysis to investigate the factors associated with each outcome. RESULTS: Perceived inadequate radiographic healing and greater symptoms of depression were independently associated with continued immobilization. Pain during the examination was not associated with continued immobilization. Patient age was associated with pain on examination. Shorter immobilization duration was the only factor associated with the surgeon's perception of inadequate radiographic consolidation. CONCLUSIONS: Inadequate radiographic healing and greater symptoms of depression are associated with a surgeon's decision to continue cast or splint immobilization of a nondisplaced scaphoid waist fracture. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Overreliance on radiographs and inadequate accounting for psychological distress may hinder the adoption of shorter immobilization times for nondisplaced waist fractures.

Factors associated with surgeon recommendation for additional cast immobilization of a CT-verified nondisplaced scaphoid waist fracture.

INTRODUCTION: Data from clinical trials suggest that CT-confirmed nondisplaced scaphoid waist fractures heal with less than the conventional 8-12 weeks of immobilization. Barriers to adopting shorter immobilization times in clinical practice may include a strong influence of fracture tenderness and radiographic appearance on decision-making. This study aimed to investigate (1) the degree to which surgeons use fracture tenderness and radiographic appearance of union, among other factors, to decide whether or not to recommend additional cast immobilization after 8 or 12 weeks of immobilization; (2) identify surgeon factors associated with the decision to continue cast immobilization after 8 or 12 weeks. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a survey-based study, 218 surgeons reviewed 16 patient scenarios of CT-confirmed nondisplaced waist fractures treated with cast immobilization for 8 or 12 weeks and recommended for or against additional cast immobilization. Clinical variables included patient sex, age, a description of radiographic fracture consolidation, fracture tenderness and duration of cast immobilization completed (8 versus 12 weeks). To assess the impact of clinical factors on recommendation to continue immobilization we calculated posterior probabilities and determined variable importance using a random forest algorithm. Multilevel logistic mixed regression analysis was used to identify surgeon characteristics associated with recommendation for additional cast immobilization. RESULTS: Unclear fracture healing on radiographs, fracture tenderness and 8 (versus 12) weeks of completed cast immobilization were the most important factors influencing surgeons' decision to recommend continued cast immobilization. Women surgeons (OR 2.96; 95% CI 1.28-6.81, p = 0.011), surgeons not specialized in orthopedic trauma, hand and wrist or shoulder and elbow surgery (categorized as 'other') (OR 2.64; 95% CI 1.31-5.33, p = 0.007) and surgeons practicing in the United States (OR 6.53, 95% CI 2.18-19.52, p = 0.01 versus Europe) were more likely to recommend continued immobilization. CONCLUSION: Adoption of shorter immobilization times for CT-confirmed nondisplaced scaphoid waist fractures may be hindered by surgeon attention to fracture tenderness and radiographic appearance.

Reevaluation of the Scaphoid Fracture: What Is the Current Best Evidence?

Scaphoid fractures are common and notorious for their troublesome healing. The aim of this review is to reevaluate the current best evidence for the diagnosis, classification, and treatment of scaphoid fractures and nonunions. MRI and CT are used to establish a "definitive diagnosis" with comparable diagnostic accuracy although neither is 100% specific. Current classifications cannot reliably predict union or outcomes; hence, a descriptive analysis of fracture location, type, and extent of displacement remains most useful. Treatment of a nondisplaced scaphoid waist fracture remains an individualized decision based on shared decision-making. Open reduction and internal fixation may be preferred when fracture displacement exceeds 1 mm, and the fracture is irreducible by closed or percutaneous means. For unstable nonunions with carpal instability, either non-vascularized cancellous graft with stable internal fixation or corticocancellous wedge grafts will provide a high rate of union and restoration of carpal alignment. For nonunions characterized with osteonecrosis of the proximal pole, vascularized bone grafting can achieve a higher rate of union.

Arthroscopic reduction of a locked patellar dislocation: a new less invasive technique.

Patellar dislocation is a condition that is often reduced by itself or through closed manipulation from a trained professional. In this case of a traumatic lateral patellar dislocation, the patella was caught through the rupture in the lateral retinaculum, as is seen in Boutonniere-like lesions. Reduction of the dislocated patella was obtained by arthroscopic reduction.Level of evidence V.

Portal placement in elbow arthroscopy by novice surgeons: cadaver study.

PURPOSE: In this anatomical cadaver study, the distance between major nerves and ligaments at risk for injury and portal sites created by trainees was measured. Trainees, inexperienced in elbow arthroscopy, have received a didactic lecture and cadaver instruction prior to portal placement. The incidence of iatrogenic injury from novice portal placement was also determined. METHODS: Anterolateral, direct lateral, and anteromedial arthroscopic portals were created in ten cadavers by ten inexperienced trainees in elbow arthroscopy. After creating each portal, the trajectory of the portal was marked with a guide pin. Subsequently, the cadavers were dissected and the distances between the guide pin in the anterolateral, direct lateral, and anteromedial portals and important ligaments and nerves were measured. RESULTS: The difference between the distance of the direct lateral portal and the posterior antebrachial cutaneous nerve (PABCN) (22 mm, p < 0.001), the lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve (4.0 mm, p < 0.001), and the radial nerve (25 mm, p < 0.001) was different from the average reported distances in the literature. A difference was found between the distance of the anterolateral portal and the PABCN (32 mm, p < 0.001) compared to previous studies. Three major iatrogenic complications were observed, including: laceration of the posterior bundle of the medial ulnar collateral ligament, lateral ulnar collateral ligament midsubstance laceration, and median nerve partial laceration. CONCLUSION: Surgeons increasingly consider arthroscopic treatment as an option for elbow pathology. In the present study a surgical complication rate of 30 % was found with novice portal placement during elbow arthroscopy. Furthermore, as the results from this study have indicated, accurate, precise, and safe portal placement in elbow arthroscopy is not easily achieved by didactic lecture and cadaver instruction session alone. Level of evidence V.

Madelung Deformity: Radioscapholunate Arthrodesis With a Neo-DRUJ.

BACKGROUND: Madelung deformity is a rare wrist anomaly that causes considerable pain while restricting function. In this study, we describe a radioscapholunate (RSL) arthrodesis with a neo-distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) in Madelung deformity patients with an abnormal sigmoid notch and compare results to patients after a reverse wedge osteotomy. METHODS: Six wrists underwent RSL arthrodesis with a neo-DRUJ in a two-phase approach: (1) modified RSL arthrodesis with triquetrectomy; and (2) distal scaphoidectomy. Seven wrists underwent a reverse wedge osteotomy procedure. RESULTS: There were no differences found in postoperative pain, grip strength, or range of motion (ROM), apart from extension, which was decreased after RSL arthrodesis with a neo-DRUJ. Quality of life and Michigan Hand Outcomes Questionnaire scores were similar. CONCLUSIONS: Although clinical outcome parameters are not different among the two groups, the RSL arthrodesis with construction of a neo-DRUJ could prove a valid treatment option for a subset of patients with a severely affected sigmoid notch.

Anterosuperior versus deltopectoral approach for primary reverse total shoulder arthroplasty.

Aims: The current evidence comparing the two most common approaches for reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA), the deltopectoral and anterosuperior approach, is limited. This study aims to compare the rate of loosening, instability, and implant survival between the two approaches for rTSA using data from the Dutch National Arthroplasty Registry with a minimum follow-up of five years. Methods: All patients in the registry who underwent a primary rTSA between January 2014 and December 2016 using an anterosuperior or deltopectoral approach were included, with a minimum follow-up of five years. Cox and logistic regression models were used to assess the association between the approach and the implant survival, instability, and glenoid loosening, independent of confounders. Results: In total, 3,902 rTSAs were included. A deltopectoral approach was used in 54% (2,099/3,902) and an anterosuperior approach in 46% (1,803/3,902). Overall, the mean age in the cohort was 75 years (50 to 96) and the most common indication for rTSA was cuff tear arthropathy (35%; n = 1,375), followed by osteoarthritis (29%; n = 1,126), acute fracture (13%; n = 517), post-traumatic sequelae (10%; n = 398), and an irreparable cuff rupture (5%; n = 199). The two high-volume centres performed the anterosuperior approach more often compared to the medium- and low-volume centres (p < 0.001). Of the 3,902 rTSAs, 187 were revised (5%), resulting in a five-year survival of 95.4% (95% confidence interval 94.7 to 96.0; 3,137 at risk). The most common reason for revision was a periprosthetic joint infection (35%; n = 65), followed by instability (25%; n = 46) and loosening (25%; n = 46). After correcting for relevant confounders, the revision rate for glenoid loosening, instability, and the overall implant survival did not differ significantly between the two approaches (p = 0.494, p = 0.826, and p = 0.101, respectively). Conclusion: The surgical approach used for rTSA did not influence the overall implant survival or the revision rate for instability or glenoid loosening.

Training improves interobserver reliability for the diagnosis of scaphoid fracture displacement.

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of displacement in scaphoid fractures is notorious for poor interobserver reliability. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: We tested whether training can improve interobserver reliability and sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy for the diagnosis of scaphoid fracture displacement on radiographs and CT scans. METHODS: Sixty-four orthopaedic surgeons rated a set of radiographs and CT scans of 10 displaced and 10 nondisplaced scaphoid fractures for the presence of displacement, using a web-based rating application. Before rating, observers were randomized to a training group (34 observers) and a nontraining group (30 observers). The training group received an online training module before the rating session, and the nontraining group did not. Interobserver reliability for training and nontraining was assessed by Siegel's multirater kappa and the Z-test was used to test for significance. RESULTS: There was a small, but significant difference in the interobserver reliability for displacement ratings in favor of the training group compared with the nontraining group. Ratings of radiographs and CT scans combined resulted in moderate agreement for both groups. The average sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of diagnosing displacement of scaphoid fractures were, respectively, 83%, 85%, and 84% for the nontraining group and 87%, 86%, and 87% for the training group. Assuming a 5% prevalence of fracture displacement, the positive predictive value was 0.23 in the nontraining group and 0.25 in the training group. The negative predictive value was 0.99 in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest training can improve interobserver reliability and sensitivity, specificity and accuracy for the diagnosis of scaphoid fracture displacement, but the improvements are slight. These findings are encouraging for future research regarding interobserver variation and how to reduce it further.

Ulnar to radial dorsal fracture-dislocations of the wrist: a report of 2 cases.

This report describes 2 patients with apparent ulnar to radial dorsal fracture-dislocation: 1 had a transtriquetrum, translunate fracture dislocation and the other had a reverse stage 2 lesser arc perilunate dislocation with fracture of the ulnar styloid at its base.

Management of scaphoid nonunion.

The primary risk factor for nonunion of the scaphoid is displacement/instability, but delayed or missed diagnosis, inadequate treatment, fracture location, and blood supply are also risk factors. Untreated nonunion leads to degenerative wrist arthritis-the so-called scaphoid nonunion advanced collapse wrist. However, the correlation of symptoms and disease is poor; the true "natural history" is debatable because we evaluate only symptomatic patients presenting for treatment. It is not clear that surgery can change the natural history, even if union is attained. The diagnosis of nonunion is made on radiographs, but computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging scans can be useful to assess deformity and blood supply. Treatment options vary from percutaneous fixation to open reduction and internal fixation with vascularized or nonvascularized bone grafting to salvage procedures involving excision and/or arthrodesis of carpals.

Corrective osteotomy for combined intra- and extra-articular distal radius malunion.

PURPOSE: This study evaluated the functional outcome of corrective osteotomy for combined intra- and extra-articular malunions of the distal radius using multiple outcome scores. METHODS: We evaluated 18 skeletally mature patients at an average of 78 months after corrective osteotomy for a combined intra- and extra-articular malunion of the distal part of the radius. The indication for osteotomy in all patients was the combination of an extra-articular deformity (≥ 15° volar or ≥ 10° dorsal angulation or ≥ 3 mm radial shortening) and intra-articular incongruity of 2 mm or greater (maximum stepoff or gap), as measured on lateral and posteroanterior radiographs. The average interval from the injury to the osteotomy was 9 months. The average maximum stepoff or gap of the articular surface before surgery was 4 mm. RESULTS: All 18 patients healed uneventfully and the final articular incongruity was reduced to 2 mm or less. Final range of motion and grip strength significantly improved, averaging 89% and 84% of the uninjured side and 185% and 241% of the preoperative measures, respectively. The rate of excellent or good results was 72% according to the validated rating system Mayo Modified Wrist Score, and 89% according to the unvalidated system of Gartland and Werley. The mean Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand score was 11, which corresponds to mild perceived disability. Of the 18 cases, 11 normalized upper limb function. Five patients had complications; all were successfully treated. According to the rating system of Knirk and Jupiter, 4 had grade 1 and 1 had grade 2 osteoarthritis of the radiocarpal joint on radiographs. Two of those patients reported occasional mild pain. Radiographic osteoarthritis did not correlate with strength, motion, and wrist scores. CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes of corrective osteotomy for combined intra- and extra-articular malunions were comparable to those of osteotomy for isolated intra- and extra-articular malunions. A successful corrective osteotomy for the treatment of complex intra- and extra-articular distal radius malunions can improve wrist function. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic IV.

Factors associated with arthroscopically determined scaphoid fracture displacement and instability.

PURPOSE: To identify factors associated with arthroscopically diagnosed scaphoid fracture displacement and instability. METHODS: This was a secondary use of data from 2 prospective cohort studies. The studies included 58 consecutive adult patients with a scaphoid fracture who elected arthroscopy-assisted operative fracture treatment: some for displacement, some as part of a prospective protocol, and others to avoid a cast. All patients had preoperative computed tomography with reconstructions in planes defined by the long axis of the scaphoid. RESULTS: Arthroscopy revealed 38 unstable fractures (movement between fracture fragments; 66%), 27 of which were also displaced. All arthroscopically determined displaced fractures were unstable, and 11 of the 31 arthroscopically determined, nondisplaced fractures were unstable. There was a significant correlation between radiographic comminution (more than 2 fracture fragments) and arthroscopically determined displacement and instability. CONCLUSIONS: Radiographic comminution is associated with displacement and instability as determined by arthroscopy.

Interobserver reliability of computed tomography to diagnose scaphoid waist fracture union.

PURPOSE: To determine the interobserver agreement and diagnostic performance characteristics of computed tomography (CT) for determining union of scaphoid waist fractures. METHODS: A total of 59 orthopedic and trauma surgeons rated for union a set of 30 sagittal CT scans of 30 scaphoid waist fractures. Of these fractures, 20 were treated nonoperatively, were imaged between 6 and 10 weeks after injury, and were known to have eventually achieved union. Ten were operatively confirmed to be ununited. We rated each scan as united or ununited using a Web-based rating application. We assessed interobserver reliability using Siegel's multirater Kappa. We calculated diagnostic performance characteristics using Bayesian formulas. RESULTS: The interobserver agreement among 59 raters was substantial. The average sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of diagnosing union of scaphoid waist fractures on sagittal CT scans were 78%, 96%, and 84%, respectively. Assuming a 90% prevalence of fracture union of the scaphoid, the positive predictive value of a diagnosis of union on sagittal CT scan was 0.99 and the negative predictive value was 0.41. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that CT scans are accurate and reliable for diagnosis of union but inadequate for ruling out nonunion of scaphoid waist fractures between 6 and 10 weeks after injury. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic III.

Nonoperative treatment for acute scaphoid fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

BACKGROUND: Recommendations for cast immobilization of acute scaphoid fractures vary substantially. We reviewed data from randomized controlled trials comparing nonoperative treatment methods for acute scaphoid fractures to determine the best available evidence. METHODS: A systematic search of the medical literature from 1966 to 2010 was performed. Two authors independently screened titles and abstracts, reviewed articles, assessed methodological quality according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation system, and extracted data. The primary outcome parameter was nonunion. Data were pooled using random-effects models with standard mean differences for continuous and risk ratios for dichotomous variables, respectively. Heterogeneity across studies was assessed with calculation of the I statistic. RESULTS: The search resulted in five potentially eligible trials of which four met our inclusion criteria. In total, 523 patients were included in four trials including two evaluating below-elbow casting versus above-elbow casting; one trial comparing below-elbow casting including the thumb versus excluding the thumb; and one trial comparing fractures with a below-elbow cast with the wrist in 20-degrees flexion to 20-degrees extension, with both types excluding the thumb. There were no significant differences in union rate, pain, grip strength, time to union, or osteonecrosis for the various nonoperative treatment methods. CONCLUSIONS: There is no evidence from randomized controlled trials on physician-based or patient-based outcome to favor any nonoperative treatment method for acute scaphoid fractures.

Diagnostic performance tests for suspected scaphoid fractures differ with conventional and latent class analysis.

BACKGROUND: Evaluation of the diagnostic performance characteristics of radiographic tests for diagnosing a true fracture among suspected scaphoid fractures is hindered by the lack of a consensus reference standard. Latent class analysis is a statistical method that takes advantage of unobserved, or latent, classes in the data that can be used to determine diagnostic performance characteristics when there is no consensus reference (gold) standard. PURPOSES: We therefore compared the diagnostic performance characteristics of MRI, CT, bone scintigraphy, and physical examination to identify true fractures among suspected scaphoid fractures. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We used data from two studies, one that prospectively studied 34 patients who had MRI and CT of the wrist, and a second that studied 78 patients who had MRI, bone scintigraphy, and structured physical examination. We compared the diagnostic performance characteristics calculated by latent class analysis with those calculated using formulas based on a reference standard. RESULTS: In the first cohort, the calculated sensitivity and specificity with latent class analysis were different than those with traditional reference standard-based calculations for the CT in the scaphoid planes (sensitivity, 0.78 versus 0.67; specificity, 1.0 versus 0.96) and the MRI (sensitivity, 0.80 versus 0.67; specificity, 0.93 versus 0.89). In the second cohort, the greatest differences were in the sensitivity of MRI (0.84 versus 0.75) and the sensitivities of physical examination maneuvers (range, 0.63-0.73 versus 1.0). CONCLUSIONS: The diagnostic performance characteristics calculated using latent class analysis may differ from those calculated according to formulas based on a reference standard. We believe latent class analysis merits further study as an option for assessing diagnostic performance characteristics for orthopaedic conditions when there is no consensus reference standard. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II, prognostic study. See the Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Nondisplaced fractures of the proximal carpal row: case report.

We present a 24-year-old woman who sustained isolated nondisplaced fractures of the proximal carpal row after a low-energy injury. The radiographic features are most consistent with the recently described translunate arc injury and appear to be a transitional injury between an inferior arc injury as well as the greater and lesser arc injuries. The injury was successfully treated with below-elbow thumb-spica cast immobilization for 10 weeks.

Osseous and ligamentous scaphoid anatomy: Part II. Evaluation of ligament morphology using three-dimensional anatomical imaging.

PURPOSE: There are many controversies in the literature regarding the morphology of the scaphoid ligaments. The aim of this study was to provide a more accurate description by quantitatively describing the 3-dimensional, geometrical aspects of the scaphoid ligaments and their attachments, using cryomicrotome images of cadaveric wrists. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen human cadaver wrists were examined with computed tomography (CT) and an imaging cryomicrotome. A series of 2-dimensional cryoimages created a 3-dimensional anatomical data set of each test specimen. Detection of ligaments and their surface areas was performed by manually marking the course and attachment points for each ligament, using dedicated visualization software. The 3-dimensional bone surfaces were segmented from the acquired CT images and incorporated in the 3-dimensional anatomical data set of the same anatomical specimen to facilitate the detection procedure. The results of the morphological parameters and attachment areas of the scaphoid ligaments are described 3-dimensionally. RESULTS: The mean size of the whole scaphoid surface was 1503 ± 17 mm(2), and the mean size of all ligament attachments on the scaphoid was 131 ± 14 mm(2); thus, ligament attachments consist of 9% ± 0.9% of the total scaphoid surface area. Based on the data, a 3-dimensional representation of the wrist was created to present the scaphoid ligament attachment areas and paths. The dorsal intercarpal ligament had the most individual variability between specimens in attachments. CONCLUSIONS: The quantitative results were almost completely consistent with the findings of previous reports. The only inconsistency in ligament morphology regarded the scaphocapitate ligament, which in this study was found to be the thickest ligament attached to the scaphoid. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The results of this study improve our knowledge of scaphoid ligament anatomy, as they corroborate previous findings. This is important for carpal surgery and will pave the way to a better understanding of the biomechanics involved in destabilization of wrist fractures.

Osseous and ligamentous scaphoid anatomy: Part I. A systematic literature review highlighting controversies.

PURPOSE: The interpretation of scaphoid anatomy and kinematics is confusing and controversial. This results from a lack of consensus on the anatomy of the ligaments attaching to the scaphoid and an overwhelming variety of substantially different anatomic descriptions and classification systems of the wrist joint in the literature. The present study systemically reviews the consistencies or inconsistencies of the various scaphoid ligament descriptions and aims to clarify and unify different concepts and classification systems. METHODS: We performed a systematic search of the medical literature from 1950 to 2010. We included all descriptive reports of the anatomy or morphology of the scaphoid, ligaments, or both. With the aim to describe the best available evidence, we considered all anatomical descriptions but emphasized a selection of the most frequently cited articles. RESULTS: The literature search resulted in 555 potentially eligible descriptive reports, 58 of which met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Variations in the anatomic descriptions appear to be mostly due to the difficulty of identifying individual interdigitating ligaments or bundles by macroscopic dissections, as well as the interindividual variability in ligament anatomy. The most important areas of controversy in the scaphoid ligament attachments include the radial collateral ligament, dorsal radiocarpal ligament, dorsal intercarpal ligament, volar scaphotriquetral ligament, and scaphotrapezium-trapezoid ligament. CONCLUSIONS: None of the scaphoid ligaments other than the scaphocapitate ligament have been described consistently. Future research is required to verify the ligament attachments that currently have the most controversial descriptions, while addressing the interindividual variability of ligament insertions and morphology. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Thorough knowledge of the anatomy will enhance our understanding of the kinematics of the scaphoid.