Exposure to Online Alcohol Marketing and Adolescents' Drinking: A Cross-sectional Study in Four European Countries.

AIMS: The Internet is the leading medium among European adolescents in contemporary times; even more time is spent on the Internet than watching television. This study investigates associations between online alcohol marketing exposure and onset of drinking and binge drinking among adolescents in four European countries. METHOD: A total of 9038 students with a mean age of 14.05 (SD 0.82) participated in a school-based survey in Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Poland. Logistic regression analyses of cross-sectional cross-country survey data were undertaken. Exposure to online alcohol marketing, televised alcohol advertising and ownership of alcohol-branded items was estimated to be controlled for relevant confounders. Onset of drinking and binge drinking in the past 30 days were included in the study as outcome variables. RESULTS: Adjusted for relevant confounders, higher exposure to (online) alcohol marketing exposure was found to be related to the odds of starting to drink (p < 0.001) and the odds of binge drinking in the past 30 days (p < 0.001). This effect was found to be consistent in all four countries. Active engagement with online alcohol marketing was found to interact more strongly with drinking outcomes than passive exposure to online alcohol marketing. CONCLUSIONS: Youngsters in the four European countries report frequent exposure to online alcohol marketing. The association between this exposure and adolescents' drinking was robust and seems consistent across national contexts.

From criminals to celebrities: perceptions of "the addict" in the print press from four European countries from nineties to today.

The article reviews portrayals of "the addict" in press items from Italy, Finland, Poland, and The Netherlands. The dataset consists of 1,327 items from four national newspapers published in 1991, 1998, 2011. The portrayals varied according to country, period, and type of addiction problem. Results can be read as four cases where different conceptualizations ("the sinner," "the sick," "the social problem," "the criminal," and "the famous") assume diverse importance. These conceptual frames-of-reference are clearly neither unambiguous nor fixed. They are constantly modified and part of different trends.

What causes addiction problems? Environmental, biological and constitutional explanations in press portrayals from four European welfare societies.

Press items (N = 1327) about addiction related problems were collected from politically independent daily newspapers in Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland from 1991, 1998, and 2011. A synchronized qualitative coding was performed for discerning the descriptions of the genesis to the problems in terms of described causes to and reasons for why they occur. Environmental explanations were by far the most common and they varied most between the materials. The analysis documents how the portrayals include traces of their contextual origin, relating to different media tasks and welfare cultural traditions. Meaning-based differences were also assigned to the kind of problems that held the most salience in the press reporting. A general worry over societal change is tied into the explanations of accumulating addiction problems and underpins the press reporting in all countries.

The legal highs problem in the Polish printed media--actors, claims, and its hidden meanings.

The authors present the results of a qualitative analysis of press articles focused on legal highs in Poland. The aim of analysis was the identification of all social actors involved in the media discourse, the arguments used, and the claims made in the frame of social, political, economical, legal, and moral issues. This analysis covered two major daily newspapers--Gazeta Wyborcza and Rzeczpospolita and two weeklies--Polityka and Newsweek. Articles were collected during a systematic analysis covering the complete number of issues starting from 2008 to 2011. As a result, a base of 386 articles was developed. The study was founded by the statutory budget.

Motives for using new psychoactive substances in three groups of Polish users: nightlife, marginalised and active on the In. / Motywy uzywania nowych substancji psychoaktywnych w trzech grupach uzytkowników: rekreacyjnych, zmarginalizowanych i aktywnych w internecie.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this article is to present the motives for using new psychoactive substances (NPS) among users in Poland and to evaluate the relationships between motives and consumption of different types of NPS. METHODS: The fieldwork was conducted in four locations: in Warsaw, Krakow, Poznan, and Tricity. The study involved a total of 596 users of new psychoactive substances. Among them were: nightlife users, using NPS recreationally (N = 172), socially marginalised users (N = 86) and users active on the internet (N = 338). The technique used in the study was a self-filled questionnaire. RESULTS: As assessed by all respondents, enhancement of mood was the most frequently indicated motive for using NPS. Among nightlife users, the NPS were most often used for the purpose of having more fun at parties. Among the marginalised users, the most common motive for using the new psychoactive substances was the desire to get intoxicated, which is a motive belonging to the group of motives related to enhancement. In the group of people active on the Internet, the most common motives for using these substances were those related to expansion. CONCLUSIONS: Identifying motives for using new psychoactive substances may contribute to reducing the use of NPS. The recreational and marginalised users have different motives for using substances. The same conclusion applies to the use of the individual NPS. The motives of using them vary. Thus, preventive, educational and therapeutic programs should be judiciously adapted to the needs of the users as well as to the kind of substances they use.

Occupational position and alcohol use disorders in Poland.

OBJECTIVES: The following analysis covers the role of the occupational structure in the prevalence of alcohol use disorders (AUDs). The authors investigated whether the occupational position affected the prevalence of AUDs among men and women, and how this relationship varied in lifetime and past year periods. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Data were taken from the General Population Survey on Mental Health in Poland (EZOP) utilizing the Composite International Diagnostic Interview questionnaire (N = 2806). Binary and multiple regression models were employed to assess the risk of AUDs adjusted for the occupational structure and socio-demographic variables. RESULTS: The occupational position affects the prevalence of AUDs in men, while it has no impact on AUDs in women. Skilled and non-skilled workers suffer from AUDs to a greater extent than those in higher occupational positions. However, the risk of alcohol harm in women seems to be equally distributed across the occupational structure. CONCLUSIONS: The uneven pattern of alcohol harm in men and women can be possibly explained by shifting working conditions and work environments, as well as traditional gender roles affecting alcohol behaviors. The findings of the study support further development of the occupational position concept in alcohol research. The problem of harmful alcohol drinking in women across the occupational structure warrants a more in-depth inquiry. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2021;34(5):591-602.

Risk perception and risk aversion among people who use New Psychoactive Substances.

INTRODUCTION: New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) are often considered to be harmful and less safe alternatives to traditional recreational drugs. Yet we have little knowledge of the ways in which risk aversion affects NPS risk perception and how risk judgements differ across types of NPS. In the analysis that follows, we investigate whether the perceived severity of risk is amplified or attenuated by users' experiences, risk avoidance strategies and modes of knowledge on risk. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The data were derived from a Polish cross-sectional study on patterns of NPS use and associated risks. A convenience sample of 605 users of NPS (Mean age = 22; range 15-49 years) completed a questionnaire. A principal component analyses and ordinal regression models were used to reveal the latent variables indicating modes of knowledge on NPS risk and risk avoidance strategies, and to determine the associations between risk aversion and perceived personal risk of NPS use. RESULTS: Several precautionary measures were employed by the majority of participants in the study. The perception of individual risk differed across NPS types. Principal component analysis yielded three components in both risk avoidance strategies ('avoiding mixes', 'precautionary measures', 'planning') and modes of knowledge on risk ('experience', 'technical knowledge', 'harm reduction'). However, ordinal regression models show that perceptions of risk are only partially affected by the modes of knowledge on NPS risk and by risk avoidance strategies. DISCUSSION: The results indicate that risk perception largely depends on NPS type. The perception of risk is driven by both modes of knowledge and risk avoidance strategies. However, they have different impacts on how individuals judge risk across various types of NPS. The perspective of risk perception should inform policy-makers and prevention experts to focus their efforts on honest and substantive risk communication. CONCLUSIONS: The present study shows that individuals tend to rely on various strategies of risk avoidance, which indicates the need to improve the substantive communication on NPS risks, with a particular focus on the types of NPS, which could help people using them make informed choices.

Negative consequences of novel psychoactive substances use among the Polish users. / Negatywne konsekwencje wynikajace z przyjmowania nowych substancji psychoaktywnych przez polskich uzytkowników.

OBJECTIVES: The use of the novel psychoactive substances (NPS) is a relatively new phenomenon on the Polish drug scene. At the same time, it is rapidly growing group of substances. The aim of the article is to present the negative consequences to physical, mental and social health due to novel psychoactive substances use. METHODS: Fieldwork was conducted in 2016 in four locations: Warsaw, Krakow, Poznan, and Tri-City. A total of 596 users of novel psychoactive substances participated in the study. Among them were: nightlife users (N = 172), marginalised users (N = 86) and users active on the internet (N = 338). A self-administered questionnaire was used. RESULTS: The substances from the stimulant/empathogen/nootropics group were the most commonly used among nightlife users, marginalised users and users active on the internet. The herbal blends were less popular, and the synthetic cannabinoids appeared on the third position. The acute side effects were most common consequences. Prevalence of medium- and long-termproblems withmentaland physicalhealth as well as social problems was at a similar level. All types of negative consequences were most prevalent among marginalised users. CONCLUSIONS: Novel psychoactive substances users experience several negative consequences. This poses a challenge to the treatment services that must answer with adequate form of help. This is not easy due to diagnostic difficulties as the effects of NPS use are often indistinguishable to the symptoms of the traditional drugs. Thus, there is a need for further research, which would allow to observe and closely monitor the problem.

Why do people use new psychoactive substances? Development of a new measurement tool in six European countries.

INTRODUCTION: New psychoactive substances (NPS) pose a public health threat. Many studies have tried to identify the reasons of NPS use; however, none of them have so far used any standardised measures. The aim of this study was (i) to develop and cross-culturally validate the New Psychoactive Substance Use Motives Measure (NPSMM) and (ii) to compare motives of NPS use across countries and user types. METHODS: Three subgroups (socially marginalised users, nightlife attendees and members of online communities) of NPS users (N = 3023) were recruited from six EU member countries. Demographics, motives and types of NPS used were assessed. NPS use motives were measured by adapting the extended six-factor version of the Marijuana Motives Measure. RESULTS: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis resulted in a similar five-factor solution across most of the countries: coping, enhancement, social, conformity and expansion motives. Marginalised users scored higher on coping and conformity motives, nightlife groups showed higher endorsement of social motive, whereas online community users showed higher scores on expansion motives. Various types of NPS were also associated with different motives. CONCLUSION: NPS use motives might be associated with both the groups of users and the specific types of NPS being consumed. Expansion (psychedelics) and enhancement (stimulants) motives seemed to be linked to the chosen NPS product type, while coping, social and conformity motives were rather associated with user groups. NPSMM was found to be a valid instrument to measure NPS motives.

Depoliticising addiction: Who gets to speak in European press reporting, 1991-2011?

AIMS: The article presents an analysis of sources of information employed in mainstream print media reporting on addiction problems in Finland, Italy and Poland in the 1990s and 2000s. METHOD: A quantitative content analysis of frequency of different sources employed in articles in daily newspapers from Finland (N = 258), Italy (N = 296), and Poland (N = 212) from the years 1991, 1998 and 2011. Semantic units were coded in Atlas.ti. The societal spheres represented were identified using a common coding scheme broadly inspired by Boltanski and Thévenot's typology of polities of worth. Transformations were identified in line with van Leeuwen's framework for trends in discourse salience over time. RESULTS: The study highlights different patterns of coverage of addictions in the three countries. Over time, increased salience is given to the individuals affected by addictions and experts who represent biomedical sciences. This process occurred with varying intensity and expressiveness in all countries under study. CONCLUSIONS: Social and political sources were employed to less extent over time. The media focus seemed to shift to the affected individuals and scientific expertise. This confirms results from previous studies on a general move towards individualisation and an increased focus on more personal and technical aspects of addiction problems in the mass media.

Health and Social Problems Associated with Recent Novel Psychoactive Substance (NPS) Use Amongst Marginalised, Nightlife and Online Users in Six European Countries.

Continued diversification and use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) across Europe remains a public health challenge. The study describes health and social consequences of recent NPS use as reported in a survey of marginalised, nightlife and online NPS users in the Netherlands, Hungary, Portugal, Ireland, Germany and Poland (n = 3023). Some respondents were unable to categorise NPS they had used. Use of 'herbal blends' and 'synthetic cannabinoids obtained pure' was most reported in Germany, Poland and Hungary, and use of 'branded stimulants' and 'stimulants/empathogens/nootropics obtained pure' was most reported in the Netherlands. Increased heart rate and palpitation, dizziness, anxiety, horror trips and headaches were most commonly reported acute side effects. Marginalised users reported substantially more acute side effects, more mid- and long-term mental and physical problems, and more social problems. Development of country-specific NPS awareness raising initiatives, health and social service needs assessments, and targeted responses are warranted.

European longitudinal study on the relationship between adolescents' alcohol marketing exposure and alcohol use.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: This is the first study to examine the effect of alcohol marketing exposure on adolescents' drinking in a cross-national context. The aim was to examine reciprocal processes between exposure to a wide range of alcohol marketing types and adolescent drinking, controlled for non-alcohol branded media exposure. DESIGN: Prospective observational study (11-12- and 14-17-month intervals), using a three-wave autoregressive cross-lagged model. SETTING: School-based sample in 181 state-funded schools in Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Poland. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 9075 eligible respondents participated in the survey (mean age 14 years, 49.5% male. MEASUREMENTS: Adolescents reported their frequency of past-month drinking and binge drinking. Alcohol marketing exposure was measured by a latent variable with 13 items measuring exposure to online alcohol marketing, televised alcohol advertising, alcohol sport sponsorship, music event/festival sponsorship, ownership alcohol-branded promotional items, reception of free samples and exposure to price offers. Confounders were age, gender, education, country, internet use, exposure to non-alcohol sponsored football championships and television programmes without alcohol commercials. FINDINGS: The analyses showed one-directional long-term effects of alcohol marketing exposure on drinking (exposure T1 on drinking T2: ß = 0.420 (0.058), P < 0.001, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.324-0.515; exposure T2 on drinking T3: ß = 0.200 (0.044), P < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.127-0.272; drinking T1 and drinking T2 on exposure: P > 0.05). Similar results were found in the binge drinking model (exposure T1 on binge T2: ß = 0.409 (0.054), P < 0.001, 95% CI = 0.320-0.499; exposure T2 on binge T3: ß = 0.168 (0.050), P = 0.001, 95% CI = 0.086-0.250; binge T1 and binge T2 on exposure: P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: There appears to be a one-way effect of alcohol marketing exposure on adolescents' alcohol use over time, which cannot be explained by either previous drinking or exposure to non-alcohol-branded marketing.