Identification of immunosuppressive factors in retinoblastoma cell secretomes and aqueous humor from patients.

The microenvironment of retinoblastoma, the solid malignancy of the developing retina, is immunosuppressive. To study the interactions between tumor-associated microglia/macrophages (TAMs) and tumor cells in retinoblastomas, we analyzed immunohistochemistry markers in 23 patient samples and characterized 105 secreted cytokines of 11 retinoblastoma cell models in culture. We detected profuse infiltration of CD163+ protumoral M2-like polarized TAMs in eyes enucleated due to cancer progression. Previous treatment of patients increased the number of TAMs but did not affect M2-like polarization. M2-like microglia/macrophages were almost absent in five eyes obtained from children enucleated due to nontumoral causes. CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) were moderately abundant in tumor eyes and very scarce in nontumoral ones. The expression of the immune checkpoint molecule PD-L1 was absent in 95% of the tumor samples, which is concordant with the finding of FOXP3+ Tregs infiltrating tumors. We confirmed the pathology results using single-cell transcriptome analysis of one tumor. We identified the cytokines extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN) and macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), both with reported immunosuppressive activity, secreted at high levels in retinoblastoma primary cell cultures. Gene expression analysis of a large retinoblastoma cohort and single-cell transcriptome analysis confirmed that MIF and EMMPRIN were significantly upregulated in retinoblastomas, which led us to quantify both proteins by immunoassays in liquid biopsies (aqueous humor obtained from more than 20 retinoblastoma patients). We found a significant increase in the concentration of MIF and EMMPRIN in cancer patients, compared to 12 noncancer ones. Finally, we showed that macrophages derived from peripheral blood mononuclear cells increased the expression of markers of M2-like polarization upon exposure to retinoblastoma-conditioned medium or recombinant MIF. Overall, our findings suggest that retinoblastoma cell secretions induce the protumoral phenotype of this tumor. Our results might have clinical impact in the fields of biomarkers and treatment. © 2022 The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Targeting GPC2 on Intraocular and CNS Metastatic Retinoblastomas with Local and Systemic Delivery of CAR T Cells.

PURPOSE: Retinoblastoma is the most common intraocular malignancy in children. Although new chemotherapeutic approaches have improved ocular salvage rates, novel therapies are required for patients with refractory intraocular and metastatic disease. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells targeting glypican-2 (GPC2) are a potential new therapeutic strategy. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: GPC2 expression and its regulation by the E2F1 transcription factor were studied in retinoblastoma patient samples and cellular models. In vitro, we performed functional studies comparing GPC2 CAR T cells with different costimulatory domains (4-1BB and CD28). In vivo, the efficacy of local and systemic administration of GPC2 CAR T cells was evaluated in intraocular and leptomeningeal human retinoblastoma xenograft models. RESULTS: Retinoblastoma tumors, but not healthy retinal tissues, expressed cell surface GPC2, and this tumor-specific expression was driven by E2F1. GPC2-directed CARs with 4-1BB costimulation (GPC2.BBz) were superior to CARs with CD28 stimulatory domains (GPC2.28z), efficiently inducing retinoblastoma cell cytotoxicity and enhancing T-cell proliferation and polyfunctionality. In vivo, GPC2.BBz CARs had enhanced persistence, which led to significant tumor regression compared with either control CD19 or GPC2.28z CARs. In intraocular models, GPC2.BBz CAR T cells efficiently trafficked to tumor-bearing eyes after intravitreal or systemic infusions, significantly prolonging ocular survival. In central nervous system (CNS) retinoblastoma models, intraventricular or systemically administered GPC2.BBz CAR T cells were activated in retinoblastoma-involved CNS tissues, resulting in robust tumor regression with substantially extended overall mouse survival. CONCLUSIONS: GPC2-directed CAR T cells are effective against intraocular and CNS metastatic retinoblastomas.

Low Bcl-2 is a robust biomarker of sensitivity to nab-paclitaxel in Ewing sarcoma.

Nanoparticle albumin-bound paclitaxel (nab-paclitaxel) shows potent preclinical anticancer activity in pediatric solid tumors such as Ewing sarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma and neuroblastoma, but responses in clinical trials have been modest. In this work, we aimed to discover a rational biomarker-based approach to select the right candidate patients for this treatment. We assessed the efficacy of nab-paclitaxel in 27 patient-derived xenografts (PDX), including 14 Ewing sarcomas, five rhabdomyosarcomas and several other pediatric solid tumors. Response rate (partial or complete response) was remarkable in rhabdomyosarcomas (four of five) and Ewing sarcomas (four of 14). We addressed several predictive factors of response to nab-paclitaxel such as the expression of the secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), chromosomal stability of cancer cells and expression of antiapoptotic members of the B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family of proteins such as Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Bcl-W and Mcl-1. Protein (immunoblotting) and gene expression of SPARC correlated positively, while immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry expression of Bcl-2 correlated negatively with the efficacy of nab-paclitaxel in Ewing sarcoma PDX. The negative correlation of Bcl-2 immunoblotting signal and activity was especially robust (r = 0.8352; P = 0.0007; Pearson correlation). Consequently, we evaluated pharmacological strategies to inhibit Bcl-2 during nab-paclitaxel treatment. We observed that the Bcl-2 inhibitor venetoclax improved the activity of nab-paclitaxel in highly resistant Bcl-2-expressing Ewing sarcoma PDX. Overall, our results suggest that low Bcl-2 expression could be used to select patients with Ewing sarcoma sensitive to nab-paclitaxel, and Bcl-2 inhibitors could improve the activity of this drug in Bcl-2-expressing Ewing sarcoma.

Follow-up of intraocular retinoblastoma through the quantitative analysis of conserved nuclear DNA sequences in aqueous humor from patients.

Fundoscopy is the standard method for diagnosis and follow-up of intraocular retinoblastoma, but it is sometimes insufficient to discern whether tumors are inactivated following treatments. In this work, we hypothesized that the amount of conserved nuclear DNA sequences in the cell-free DNA (cfDNA) fraction of the aqueous humor (AH) might complement fundoscopy for retinoblastoma follow-up. To address our hypothesis, we developed highly sensitive droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) methods to quantify highly conserved DNA sequences of nucleus-encoded genes (GAPDH and B4GALNT1) and of a mitochondrial gene, MT-ATP6. We obtained AH samples during intravitreal treatments. We analyzed 42 AH samples from 25 patients with intraocular retinoblastoma and 11 AH from controls (non-cancer patients). According to clinical criteria, we grouped patients as having progression-free or progressive retinoblastoma. cfDNA concentration in the AH was similar in both retinoblastoma groups. Copy counts for nucleus-derived sequences of GAPDH and B4GALNT1 were significantly higher in the AH from patients with progressive disease, compared to the AH from progression-free patients and control non-cancer patients. The presence of mitochondrial DNA in the AH explained that both retinoblastoma groups had similar cfDNA concentration in AH. The optimal cut-off point for discriminating between progressive and progression-free retinoblastomas was 108 GAPDH copies per reaction. Among patients having serial AH samples analyzed during their intravitreal chemotherapy, GAPDH copies were high and decreased below the cut-off point in those patients responding to chemotherapy. In contrast, one non-responder patient remained with values above the cut-off during follow-up, until enucleation. We conclude that the measurement of conserved nuclear gene sequences in AH allows follow-up of intraocular retinoblastoma during intravitreal treatment. The method is applicable to all patients and could be relevant for those in which fundoscopy evaluation is inconclusive.

SPARC-mediated long-term retention of nab-paclitaxel in pediatric sarcomas.

Secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) is a matricellular glycoprotein overexpressed by several cancers. Because SPARC shows high binding affinity to albumin, we reasoned that pediatric sarcoma xenografts expressing SPARC would show enhanced uptake and accumulation of nanoparticle albumin-bound (nab)-paclitaxel, a potent anticancer drug formulation. We first evaluated the expression of SPARC in patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) of Ewing sarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma and osteosarcoma, finding variable SPARC gene expression that correlated well with SPARC protein measured by immunoblotting. We revealed that the activity of the fusion gene chimera EWSR1-FLI1, the genetic driver of Ewing sarcoma, leads to lower expression of the gene SPARC in these tumors, likely due to enriched acetylation marks of the histone H3 lysine 27 at regions including the SPARC promoter and potential enhancers. Then, we used SPARC-edited Ewing sarcoma cells (A673 line) to demonstrate that SPARC knocked down (KD) cells accumulated significantly less amount of nab-paclitaxel in vitro than SPARC wild type (WT) cells. In vivo, SPARC KD and SPARC WT subcutaneous xenografts in mice achieved similar maximum intratumoral concentrations of nab-paclitaxel, though drug clearance from SPARC WT tumors was significantly slower. We confirmed such SPARC-mediated long-term intratumoral accumulation of nab-paclitaxel in Ewing sarcoma PDX with high expression of SPARC, which accumulated significantly more nab-paclitaxel than SPARC-low PDX. SPARC-high PDX responded better to nab-paclitaxel than SPARC-low tumors, although these results should be taken cautiously, given that the PDXs were established from different patients that could have specific determinants predisposing response to paclitaxel. In addition, SPARC KD Ewing sarcoma xenografts responded better to soluble docetaxel and paclitaxel than to nab-paclitaxel, while SPARC WT ones showed similar response to soluble and albumin-carried drugs. Overall, our results show that pediatric sarcomas expressing SPARC accumulate nab-paclitaxel for longer periods of time, which could have clinical implications for chemotherapy efficacy.

Prognostic value of patient-derived xenograft engraftment in pediatric sarcomas.

The goals of this work were to identify factors favoring patient-derived xenograft (PDX) engraftment and study the association between PDX engraftment and prognosis in pediatric patients with Ewing sarcoma, osteosarcoma, and rhabdomyosarcoma. We used immunodeficient mice to establish 30 subcutaneous PDX from patient tumor biopsies, with a successful engraftment rate of 44%. Age greater than 12 years and relapsed disease were patient factors associated with higher engraftment rate. Tumor type and biopsy location did not associate with engraftment. PDX models retained histology markers and most chromosomal aberrations of patient samples during successive passages in mice. Model treatment with irinotecan resulted in significant activity in 20 of the PDXs and replicated the response of rhabdomyosarcoma patients. Successive generations of PDXs responded similarly to irinotecan, demonstrating functional stability of these models. Importantly, out of 68 tumor samples from 51 patients with a median follow-up of 21.2 months, PDX engraftment from newly diagnosed patients was a prognostic factor significantly associated with poor outcome (p = 0.040). This association was not significant for relapsed patients. In the subgroup of patients with newly diagnosed Ewing sarcoma classified as standard risk, we found higher risk of relapse or refractory disease associated with those samples that produced stable PDX models (p = 0.0357). Overall, our study shows that PDX engraftment predicts worse outcome in newly diagnosed pediatric sarcoma patients.

Treatment-driven selection of chemoresistant Ewing sarcoma tumors with limited drug distribution.

Ewing sarcoma is a bone and soft tissue tumor predominantly affecting adolescents and young adults. To characterize changes in anticancer drug activity and intratumor drug distribution during the evolution of Ewing sarcomas, we used immunodeficient mice to establish pairs of patient-derived xenografts (PDX) at early (initial diagnosis) and late (relapse or refractory progression) stages of the disease from three patients. Analysis of copy number alterations (CNA) in early passage PDX tissues showed that two tumor pairs established from patients which responded initially to therapy and relapsed more than one year later displayed similar CNAs at early and late stages. For these two patients, PDX established from late tumors were more resistant to chemotherapy (irinotecan) than early counterparts. In contrast, the tumor pair established at refractory progression showed highly dissimilar CNA profiles, and the pattern of response to chemotherapy was discordant with those of relapsed cases. In mice receiving irinotecan infusions, the level of SN-38 (active metabolite of irinotecan) in the intracellular tumor compartment was reduced in tumors at later stages compared to earlier tumors for those pairs bearing similar CNAs, suggesting that distribution of anticancer drug shifted toward the extracellular compartment during clonal tumor evolution. Overexpression of the drug transporter P-glycoprotein in late tumor was likely responsible for this shift in drug distribution in one of the cases.