Comparative aspects of meiotic cell cycle control in mammals.

This review examines the mechanisms of cell cycle control in mammalian germ cells with respect to species-specific variations in reproductive strategies. While sex-specific variants are evidenced at the level of checkpoint controls, the timing of meiotic progression, and the modulation of meiosis by hormonal cues, local somatic cell influences impose a hierarchical order to both the initiation and completion of gametogenesis. In the particular case of meiosis in females the rules governing entry into meiotic prophase during gonadal development are generally conserved. In contrast, the regulation of meiotic arrest in developing ovarian follicles, the reinitiation of meiosis at ovulation, and the completion of meiosis upon fertilization involves changes in both the cell cycle machinery and execution of external cues. The overall efficiency of meiotic progression is determined by inputs, mediated by cell contact and/or growth factor, which coordinate oogenesis with folliculogenesis and ensure appropriate and species-specific ovulatory outputs (monovular or polyovular). How mechanisms of meiotic cell cycle control can be exploited to improve gamete quality or interfere with fertility is discussed.

Sorting and reorganization of centrosomes during oocyte maturation in the mouse.

In animal oocytes, the centrosome exists as an acentriolar aggregate of centrosomal material that is regulated in a dynamic manner throughout the process of meiotic maturation. Recently, it has been demonstrated that in female meiotic systems spindle assembly is likely regulated by chromosomal and microtubule/microtubule-associated influences. The purpose of this study was to analyze the distribution of the integral centrosomal protein, pericentrin, during the course of meiotic maturation. The function of the centrosome during meiotic progression was evaluated by exposing oocytes to pharmacological agents that perturb cytoplasmic homeostasis (cycloheximide, nocodazole, cytochalasin D, taxol, and vanadate). Pericentrin was localized to the spindle poles during metaphase of meiosis-I as O- and C-shaped structures. At anaphase, these structures fragment, become displaced from the spindle poles, and associate with the lateral spindle margin. The metaphase spindle at meiosis-II had incomplete pericentrin rings at both spindle poles. Vanadate treatment, a known inhibitor of dynein-ATPase, resulted in meiotic arrest, constriction of the spindle pole, and an aggregation of pericentrin at the spindle poles. After taxol exposure, pericentrin incorporation into both spindle poles and cytoplasmic centrosomes was increased. Treatment of oocytes with cycloheximide, nocodazole, and cytochalasin D, influenced early events associated with chromosome capture and spindle assembly and altered the number and distribution of cytoplasmic centrosomes. Thus, although pericentrin incorporation is not required for meiotic spindle formation, the dynamic reorganization of pericentrin and changes in centrosome microtubule nucleating capacity are involved in critical cell cycle transitions during meiotic maturation.

Taxol-induced meiotic maturation delay, spindle defects, and aneuploidy in mouse oocytes and zygotes.

To increase our understanding about the potential risks of chemically-induced aneuploidy, more information about the various mechanisms of aneuploidy induction is needed, particularly in germ cells. Most chemicals that induce aneuploidy inhibit microtubule polymerization. However, taxol alters microtubule dynamics by enhancing polymerization and stabilizing the polymer fraction. We tested the hypothesis that taxol induces meiotic delay, spindle defects, and aneuploidy in mouse oocytes and zygotes. Super-ovulated ICR mice received 0 (control), 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 mg/kg taxol intraperitoneally immediately after HCG. Females were paired (1:1) with males for 17 h after taxol treatment. Mated females were given colchicine 25 h after taxol and their one-cell zygotes were collected 16 h later. Ovulated oocytes from non-mated females were collected 17 h after taxol. Chromosomes were C-banded for cytogenetic analyses. Oocytes were also collected from another group of similarly treated females for in situ chromatin and microtubule analyses. Taxol significantly (p<0.01) enhanced the proportion of oocytes exhibiting parthenogenetic activation, chromosomes displaced from the meiotic spindle, and sister-chromatid separation. Moreover, 7.5 mg/kg taxol significantly (p<0.01) increased the proportions of metaphase I and diploid oocytes and polyploid zygotes. A significant (p<0.01) dose response for taxol-induced hyperploidy in oocytes and zygotes was found. These results support the hypothesis that taxol-induced meiotic delay and spindle defects contribute to aneuploid mouse oocytes and zygotes.

Characterization of oocyte and follicle development in growth differentiation factor-9-deficient mice.

Female mice null for the oocyte-specific gene product, growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9), a member of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily, exhibit primary infertility due to failed ovarian follicular development. The purpose of this study is to characterize oocyte and follicular differentiation as a function of animal age using cell culture and fluorescence, confocal, and electron microscopy. Analysis of follicles from GDF-9 homozygous mutant mice indicates that GDF-9-deficient oocytes grow more rapidly than control oocytes and that follicle growth ceases at the type 3b stage. Based on germinal vesicle (GV) chromatin patterns, fully grown oocytes isolated from GDF-9-deficient mice progress to advanced stages of differentiation equivalent to those found in antral follicles of control (heterozygous) mice. In vitro maturation of oocytes from homozygous mutant mice revealed that most oocytes are capable of resuming meiosis, with the ability to achieve meiotic completion reaching the highest levels in 6-week-old mice. Among the characteristic ultrastructural features of oocytes from homozygous mutant mice are perinuclear organelle aggregation, unusual peripheral Golgi complexes, and a failure to form cortical granules. Modified interconnections between granulosa cells and oocytes were also observed by ultrastructural (EM) and fluorescence microscopic analysis of follicles from GDF-9-deficient mice. These modifications included a decrease in the number of actin-based transzonal processes and modifications of microtubule-based projections that over time gave rise to invasion of the perivitelline space with eventual loss of oocyte viability. These cell-cell aberrations suggest a critical role for GDF-9 in the regulation of growth in preantral follicles through a mechanism involving bidirectional somatic cell-germ cell interactions.

Oocyte-granulosa cell heterologous gap junctions are required for the coordination of nuclear and cytoplasmic meiotic competence.

Homologous gap junctions are generally recognized as a means of coordinating cellular behavior under developmental and homeostatic conditions. In the mammalian ovary, heterologous gap junctions between the oocyte and the granulosa cells have been widely implicated in the regulation of meiotic maturation late in oogenesis. However, the role of oocyte-granulosa cell gap junctions at earlier stages of oogenesis is poorly understood. Stage-specific defects in both oocyte and follicle development have been identified in juvenile mice deficient in heterologous oocyte-granulosa cell gap junctions due to targeted deletion of Gja4, the gene encoding connexin-37. Follicle development arrests at the type 4 preantral stage and although oocytes commence growth, oocyte growth ceases at a diameter of 52 microm (74.3% of control size). Analysis of cell cycle and cytoskeletal markers indicates that oocytes arrest in a G(2) state based on uniform decondensed GV chromatin, interphase microtubule arrays, and nonphosphorylated cytoplasmic centrosomes. Functional assays of meiotic competence confirm that oocytes from connexin-37-deficient mice are unable to enter M phase (initiate meiotic maturation) unless treated with the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid (OA). Unlike growing oocytes from heterozygous control animals, OA-treated oocytes from connexin-37-deficient mice respond acutely and progress rapidly to the circular bivalent stage of meiosis I and upon removal from OA rapidly revert to an interphase state. In contrast, OA-treated control incompetent oocytes are slow to respond, exhibit a lower proportion of chromosomal bivalent stage oocytes, but remain in and progress into meiotic M phase upon removal from OA. This study demonstrates that heterologous gap-junctional communication is required for the completion of oocyte growth and the acquisition of cytoplasmic meiotic competence.

Cellular basis for paracrine regulation of ovarian follicle development.

Paracrine factors secreted by oocytes and somatic cells regulate many important aspects of early ovarian follicle development in mammals. From activation of dormant primordial follicles to selection of secondary follicles, locally acting factors have been identified that appear to exert important effects on the growth and differentiation of oocytes and granulosa cells. This article summarizes evidence to support a model for bi-directional paracrine communication that is based on developmental regulation of the delivery and reception of paracrine factors at the oocyte-granulosa cell interface. Transzonal projections that originate from granulosa cells and terminate at the oocyte plasma membrane provide a polarized means to orient the secretory organelles of somatic cells. Characterization of transzonal projections in follicles from normal and genetically modified mice reveals dynamic changes in the density and stability of transzonal projections. On the basis of new data analysing the orientation and cytoskeletal content of transzonal projections in mammalian oocytes, a model is proposed for regulation of paracrine growth factor secretion by follicle-stimulating hormone. These findings have immediate implications for ovarian hyperstimulation protocols and follicle culture models as related to the production of mammalian embryos by assisted reproductive technologies.

Centrosome-specific perturbations during in vitro maturation of mouse oocytes exposed to cocaine.

Previous studies indicating that cocaine may perturb meiotic chromosome segregation in mammalian oocytes prompted an analysis of the effects of cocaine on mouse oocytes matured in vitro under defined exposure conditions. Cumulus-enclosed mouse oocytes were matured in vitro in the continuous presence of cocaine and assessed for meiotic cell cycle progression and centrosome-microtubule organization using a combination of cytogenetic and fluorescence microscopic techniques. Both of these approaches demonstrated that cocaine had little effect on meiotic cell cycle progression to metaphase of meiosis-2 except at the highest dose tested (1000 microg/ml) where progression from metaphase-1 to metaphase-2 was inhibited. Cytogenetic analyses further showed that bivalent segregation was moderately affected and the incidence of premature centromere separation was significantly decreased following cocaine treatment. Under conditions of cocaine exposure, striking changes in meiotic spindle structure and cytoplasmic centrosome organization were observed. A 36% reduction in spindle length was associated with a loss of nonacetylated microtubules and fragmentation of spindle pole centrosomes. Moreover, in oocytes exposed to cocaine during maturation, a doubling in cytoplasmic centrosome number was observed. These results are discussed with respect to the relative roles of chromosomes and centrosomes in establishing and maintaining functional microtubule organization during meiosis in oocytes.