Effects of prenatal exposure to maternal COVID-19 and perinatal care on neonatal outcome: results from the INTERCOVID Multinational Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: The effect of COVID-19 in pregnancy on maternal outcomes and its association with preeclampsia and gestational diabetes mellitus have been reported; however, a detailed understanding of the effects of maternal positivity, delivery mode, and perinatal practices on fetal and neonatal outcomes is urgently needed. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of COVID-19 on fetal and neonatal outcomes and the role of mode of delivery, breastfeeding, and early neonatal care practices on the risk of mother-to-child transmission. STUDY DESIGN: In this cohort study that took place from March 2020 to March 2021, involving 43 institutions in 18 countries, 2 unmatched, consecutive, unexposed women were concomitantly enrolled immediately after each infected woman was identified, at any stage of pregnancy or delivery, and at the same level of care to minimize bias. Women and neonates were followed up until hospital discharge. COVID-19 in pregnancy was determined by laboratory confirmation and/or radiological pulmonary findings or ≥2 predefined COVID-19 symptoms. The outcome measures were indices of neonatal and perinatal morbidity and mortality, neonatal positivity and its correlation with mode of delivery, breastfeeding, and hospital neonatal care practices. RESULTS: A total of 586 neonates born to women with COVID-19 diagnosis and 1535 neonates born to women without COVID-19 diagnosis were enrolled. Women with COVID-19 diagnosis had a higher rate of cesarean delivery (52.8% vs 38.5% for those without COVID-19 diagnosis, P<.01) and pregnancy-related complications, such as hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and fetal distress (all with P<.001), than women without COVID-19 diagnosis. Maternal diagnosis of COVID-19 carried an increased rate of preterm birth (P≤.001) and lower neonatal weight (P≤.001), length, and head circumference at birth. In mothers with COVID-19 diagnosis, the length of in utero exposure was significantly correlated to the risk of the neonate testing positive (odds ratio, 4.5; 95% confidence interval, 2.2-9.4 for length of in utero exposure >14 days). Among neonates born to mothers with COVID-19 diagnosis, birth via cesarean delivery was a risk factor for testing positive for COVID-19 (odds ratio, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.2-4.7), even when severity of maternal conditions was considered and after multivariable logistic analysis. In the subgroup of neonates born to women with COVID-19 diagnosis, the outcomes worsened when the neonate also tested positive, with higher rates of neonatal intensive care unit admission, fever, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms, and death, even after adjusting for prematurity. Breastfeeding by mothers with COVID-19 diagnosis and hospital neonatal care practices, including immediate skin-to-skin contact and rooming-in, were not associated with an increased risk of newborn positivity. CONCLUSION: In this multinational cohort study, COVID-19 in pregnancy was associated with increased maternal and neonatal complications. Cesarean delivery was significantly associated with newborn COVID-19 diagnosis. Vaginal delivery should be considered the safest mode of delivery if obstetrical and health conditions allow it. Mother-to-child skin-to-skin contact, rooming-in, and direct breastfeeding were not risk factors for newborn COVID-19 diagnosis, thus well-established best practices can be continued among women with COVID-19 diagnosis.

Diabetes mellitus, maternal adiposity, and insulin-dependent gestational diabetes are associated with COVID-19 in pregnancy: the INTERCOVID study.

BACKGROUND: Among nonpregnant individuals, diabetes mellitus and high body mass index increase the risk of COVID-19 and its severity. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine whether diabetes mellitus and high body mass index are risk factors for COVID-19 in pregnancy and whether gestational diabetes mellitus is associated with COVID-19 diagnosis. STUDY DESIGN: INTERCOVID was a multinational study conducted between March 2020 and February 2021 in 43 institutions from 18 countries, enrolling 2184 pregnant women aged ≥18 years; a total of 2071 women were included in the analyses. For each woman diagnosed with COVID-19, 2 nondiagnosed women delivering or initiating antenatal care at the same institution were also enrolled. The main exposures were preexisting diabetes mellitus, high body mass index (overweight or obesity was defined as a body mass index ≥25 kg/m2), and gestational diabetes mellitus in pregnancy. The main outcome was a confirmed diagnosis of COVID-19 based on a real-time polymerase chain reaction test, antigen test, antibody test, radiological pulmonary findings, or ≥2 predefined COVID-19 symptoms at any time during pregnancy or delivery. Relationships of exposures and COVID-19 diagnosis were assessed using generalized linear models with a Poisson distribution and log link function, with robust standard errors to account for model misspecification. Furthermore, we conducted sensitivity analyses: (1) restricted to those with a real-time polymerase chain reaction test or an antigen test in the last week of pregnancy, (2) restricted to those with a real-time polymerase chain reaction test or an antigen test during the entire pregnancy, (3) generating values for missing data using multiple imputation, and (4) analyses controlling for month of enrollment. In addition, among women who were diagnosed with COVID-19, we examined whether having gestational diabetes mellitus, diabetes mellitus, or high body mass index increased the risk of having symptomatic vs asymptomatic COVID-19. RESULTS: COVID-19 was associated with preexisting diabetes mellitus (risk ratio, 1.94; 95% confidence interval, 1.55-2.42), overweight or obesity (risk ratio, 1.20; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-1.37), and gestational diabetes mellitus (risk ratio, 1.21; 95% confidence interval, 0.99-1.46). The gestational diabetes mellitus association was specifically among women requiring insulin, whether they were of normal weight (risk ratio, 1.79; 95% confidence interval, 1.06-3.01) or overweight or obese (risk ratio, 1.77; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-2.45). A somewhat stronger association with COVID-19 diagnosis was observed among women with preexisting diabetes mellitus, whether they were of normal weight (risk ratio, 1.93; 95% confidence interval, 1.18-3.17) or overweight or obese (risk ratio, 2.32; 95% confidence interval, 1.82-2.97). When the sample was restricted to those with a real-time polymerase chain reaction test or an antigen test in the week before delivery or during the entire pregnancy, including missing variables using imputation or controlling for month of enrollment, the observed associations were comparable. CONCLUSION: Diabetes mellitus and overweight or obesity were risk factors for COVID-19 diagnosis in pregnancy, and insulin-dependent gestational diabetes mellitus was associated with the disease. Therefore, it is essential that women with these comorbidities are vaccinated.

Fetal and placental infection with SARS-CoV-2 in early pregnancy.

To date, mother-to-fetus transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, remains controversial. Although placental COVID-19 infection has been documented in some cases during the second- and third-trimesters, no reports are available for the first trimester of pregnancy, and no SARS-CoV-2 protein has been found in fetal tissues. We studied the placenta and fetal organs from an early pregnancy miscarriage in a COVID-19 maternal infection by immunohistochemical, reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunofluorescence, and electron microscopy methods. SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein, viral RNA, and particles consistent with coronavirus were found in the placenta and fetal tissues, accompanied by RNA replication revealed by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) positive immunostain. Prominent damage of the placenta and fetal organs were associated with a hyperinflammatory process identified by histological examination and immunohistochemistry. The findings provided in this study document that congenital SARS-CoV-2 infection is possible during the first trimester of pregnancy and that fetal organs, such as lung and kidney, are targets for coronavirus. The infection and multi-organic fetal inflammation produced by SARS-CoV-2 during early pregnancy should alert clinicians in the assessment and management of pregnant women for possible fetal consequences and adverse perinatal outcomes.

Preeclampsia and COVID-19: results from the INTERCOVID prospective longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: It is unclear whether the suggested link between COVID-19 during pregnancy and preeclampsia is an independent association or if these are caused by common risk factors. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to quantify any independent association between COVID-19 during pregnancy and preeclampsia and to determine the effect of these variables on maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. STUDY DESIGN: This was a large, longitudinal, prospective, unmatched diagnosed and not-diagnosed observational study assessing the effect of COVID-19 during pregnancy on mothers and neonates. Two consecutive not-diagnosed women were concomitantly enrolled immediately after each diagnosed woman was identified, at any stage during pregnancy or delivery, and at the same level of care to minimize bias. Women and neonates were followed until hospital discharge using the standardized INTERGROWTH-21st protocols and electronic data management system. A total of 43 institutions in 18 countries contributed to the study sample. The independent association between the 2 entities was quantified with the risk factors known to be associated with preeclampsia analyzed in each group. The outcomes were compared among women with COVID-19 alone, preeclampsia alone, both conditions, and those without either of the 2 conditions. RESULTS: We enrolled 2184 pregnant women; of these, 725 (33.2%) were enrolled in the COVID-19 diagnosed and 1459 (66.8%) in the COVID-19 not-diagnosed groups. Of these women, 123 had preeclampsia of which 59 of 725 (8.1%) were in the COVID-19 diagnosed group and 64 of 1459 (4.4%) were in the not-diagnosed group (risk ratio, 1.86; 95% confidence interval, 1.32-2.61). After adjustment for sociodemographic factors and conditions associated with both COVID-19 and preeclampsia, the risk ratio for preeclampsia remained significant among all women (risk ratio, 1.77; 95% confidence interval, 1.25-2.52) and nulliparous women specifically (risk ratio, 1.89; 95% confidence interval, 1.17-3.05). There was a trend but no statistical significance among parous women (risk ratio, 1.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.99-2.73). The risk ratio for preterm birth for all women diagnosed with COVID-19 and preeclampsia was 4.05 (95% confidence interval, 2.99-5.49) and 6.26 (95% confidence interval, 4.35-9.00) for nulliparous women. Compared with women with neither condition diagnosed, the composite adverse perinatal outcome showed a stepwise increase in the risk ratio for COVID-19 without preeclampsia, preeclampsia without COVID-19, and COVID-19 with preeclampsia (risk ratio, 2.16; 95% confidence interval, 1.63-2.86; risk ratio, 2.53; 95% confidence interval, 1.44-4.45; and risk ratio, 2.84; 95% confidence interval, 1.67-4.82, respectively). Similar findings were found for the composite adverse maternal outcome with risk ratios of 1.76 (95% confidence interval, 1.32-2.35), 2.07 (95% confidence interval, 1.20-3.57), and 2.77 (95% confidence interval, 1.66-4.63). The association between COVID-19 and gestational hypertension and the direction of the effects on preterm birth and adverse perinatal and maternal outcomes, were similar to preeclampsia, but confined to nulliparous women with lower risk ratios. CONCLUSION: COVID-19 during pregnancy is strongly associated with preeclampsia, especially among nulliparous women. This association is independent of any risk factors and preexisting conditions. COVID-19 severity does not seem to be a factor in this association. Both conditions are associated independently of and in an additive fashion with preterm birth, severe perinatal morbidity and mortality, and adverse maternal outcomes. Women with preeclampsia should be considered a particularly vulnerable group with regard to the risks posed by COVID-19.

Congenital Zika Syndrome and Extra-Central Nervous System Detection of Zika Virus in a Pre-term Newborn in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: During pregnancy, the Zika virus (ZIKV) replicates in the placenta and central nervous system (CNS) of infected fetuses; nevertheless, the ability of ZIKV to replicate in other fetal tissues has not been extensively characterized. METHODS: We researched whether dissemination of congenitally-acquired ZIKV outside the CNS exists by searching for the accumulation of the viral envelope protein, ZIKV ribonucleic acid (RNA), and infectious viral particles in different organs of a deceased newborn with Congenital Zika Syndrome. A real-time qualitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to detect ZIKV RNA in the brain, thymus, lungs, kidneys, adrenal glands, spleen, liver, and small intestine. The same tissues were analyzed by indirect immunofluorescence and immunoperoxidase assays using the monoclonal antibody 4G2 to detect ZIKV envelope antigens. Isolation of infectious ZIKV in a cell culture was carried out using brain and kidney samples. RESULTS: A postmortem, virological analysis of multiple organs, such as the kidneys (epithelial cells in the renal tubules), lungs (bronchial epithelia), thymus (epithelial cells inside the Hassall's corpuscles), and brain (neurons, ependymal cells, and macrophages) revealed the presence of ZIKV RNA and envelope antigens. Other tissues of the deceased newborn tested positive by qPCR for Epstein-Barr virus and human herpesvirus 6, including the brain cortex (Epstein-Barr) and the thymus, kidneys, and adrenal glands (human herpesvirus 6). The kidneys were identified as a significant niche for viral replication, given that infectious particles were successfully isolated from renal tissues. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate the ability of congenitally-acquired ZIKV to produce disseminated infections and the viral tropism towards epithelial cells.

Collapsing Lesions and Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis in Pregnancy: A Report of 3 Cases.

The relationship between focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) and pregnancy is complex and not completely elucidated. Pregnancy in patients with FSGS poses a high risk for complications, possibly due to hemodynamic factors, imbalance between angiogenic and antiangiogenic factors, and hormonal conditioning. Although poor clinical outcomes associated with collapsing FSGS are common outside of pregnancy, the prognosis during pregnancy is not well documented. We report 3 patients who developed collapsing FSGS during pregnancy, 2 of whom had presumed underlying FSGS. Two patients underwent biopsy during pregnancy, and 1, during the puerperium. None of the 3 patients improved spontaneously after delivery, and 1 experienced a rapid deterioration in kidney function and proteinuria after delivery. Aggressive immunosuppressive therapy led to a full response in 1 case (without chronic lesions) and to partial responses in the remaining 2 cases. These cases suggest that collapsing lesions should be considered in patients with FSGS who develop a rapid increase in serum creatinine level or proteinuria during pregnancy and that these lesions may at least partially respond to treatment.

Effect of Oropharyngeal Administration of Colostrum in Premature Newborns ≤32 Weeks of Gestation on the Immune Response and Neonatal Morbidity: A Double-Blind Randomized Clinical Trial.

Introduction: The mother's colostrum carries immunological components, such as cytokines and immunoglobulins (Igs), derived from the maternal circulation with bacteriostatic properties. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of oropharyngeal administration of colostrum (OPAC) vs. placebo in the first 4 days of life in premature newborns ≤32 weeks of gestation on serum Ig concentration, neonatal morbidity, and total days of hospitalization. Hypothesis: The OPAC increases serum Igs and decreases morbidity and total days of hospitalization. Materials and Methods: A double-blind randomized controlled trial was carried out. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the two groups, namely, group 1: placebo (P) (n = 50) and group 2: colostrum (C) (n = 46). A blood sample was obtained at baseline and 7 and 28 days of life to quantify immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin A (IgA), and IgM. Results: The C group showed an increase in serum IgA on day 28 expressed as median and [interquartile range]; C: 25 [12-35] vs. P: 11 [8-18], p < 0.001. There were no significant differences in neonatal morbidity. Newborns in the colostrum group showed the completed enteral feeding earlier (days), C: 13.9 ± 7 vs. P: 17.4 ± 8.4, p < 0.04; they reached the birth weight earlier, C: 10.9 ± 2.8 vs. P: 12.9 ± 4, p < 0.01, and had less days of hospitalization, C: 60.2 ± 33.8 vs. P: 77.2 ± 47.3, p < 0.04. Neonatal mortality was lower in the colostrum group than the placebo group 0% vs. 12%, respectively, without a statistical difference (p = 0.06). Conclusion: In premature newborns ≤32 weeks of gestation, the OPAC within 4 days after birth increases serum IgA concentration at day 28 compared to placebo. Similarly, OPAC decreased the days to complete enteral feeding and reach the birth weight and total days of hospitalization. Clinical Trial Registration: [https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03578341], identifier: [NCT03578341].

Cord Blood SARS-CoV-2 IgG Antibodies and Their Association With Maternal Immunity and Neonatal Outcomes.

Passive transplacental immunity is crucial for neonatal protection from infections. Data on the correlation between neonatal immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and protection from adverse outcomes is scarce. This work aimed to describe neonatal seropositivity in the context of maternal SARS-CoV-2 infection, seropositivity, and neonatal outcomes. This retrospective nested case-control study enrolled high-risk pregnant women with a SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR positive test who gave birth at the Instituto Nacional de Perinatología in Mexico City and their term neonates. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies in maternal and cord blood samples were detected using a chemiluminescent assay. In total, 63 mother-neonate dyads (mean gestational age 38.4 weeks) were included. Transplacental transfer of SARS-CoV-2 IgG occurred in 76% of neonates from seropositive mothers. A positive association between maternal IgG levels and Cycle threshold (Ct) values of RT-qPCR test for SARS-CoV-2 with neonatal IgG levels was observed. Regarding neonatal outcomes, most seropositive neonates did not require any mechanical ventilation, and none developed any respiratory morbidity (either in the COVID-19 positive or negative groups) compared to 7 seronegative neonates. Furthermore, the odds of neonatal respiratory morbidity exhibited a tendency to decrease when neonatal IgG levels increase. These results add further evidence suggesting passive IgG transfer importance.

COVID-19 Infection in Pregnancy: PCR Cycle Thresholds, Placental Pathology, and Perinatal Outcomes.

(1) This study aimed to evaluate characteristics, perinatal outcomes, and placental pathology of pregnant women with or without SARS-CoV-2 infection in the context of maternal PCR cycle threshold (CT) values. (2) This was a retrospective case-control study in a third-level health center in Mexico City with universal screening by RT-qPCR. The association of COVID-19 manifestations, preeclampsia, and preterm birth with maternal variables and CT values were assessed by logistic regression models and decision trees. (3) Accordingly, 828 and 298 women had a negative and positive test, respectively. Of those positive, only 2.6% of them presented mild to moderate symptoms. Clinical characteristics between both groups of women were similar. No associations between CT values were found for maternal features, such as pre-gestational BMI, age, and symptomatology. A significantly higher percentage of placental fibrinoid was seen with women with low CTs (<25; p < 0.01). Regarding perinatal outcomes, preeclampsia was found to be significantly associated with symptomatology but not with risk factors or CT values (p < 0.01, aOR = 14.72). Moreover, 88.9% of women diagnosed with COVID-19 at <35 gestational weeks and symptomatic developed preeclampsia. (4) The data support strong guidance for pregnancies with SARS-CoV-2 infection, in particular preeclampsia and placental pathology, which need further investigation.

Maternal and Neonatal Morbidity and Mortality Among Pregnant Women With and Without COVID-19 Infection: The INTERCOVID Multinational Cohort Study.

Importance: Detailed information about the association of COVID-19 with outcomes in pregnant individuals compared with not-infected pregnant individuals is much needed. Objective: To evaluate the risks associated with COVID-19 in pregnancy on maternal and neonatal outcomes compared with not-infected, concomitant pregnant individuals. Design, Setting, and Participants: In this cohort study that took place from March to October 2020, involving 43 institutions in 18 countries, 2 unmatched, consecutive, not-infected women were concomitantly enrolled immediately after each infected woman was identified, at any stage of pregnancy or delivery, and at the same level of care to minimize bias. Women and neonates were followed up until hospital discharge. Exposures: COVID-19 in pregnancy determined by laboratory confirmation of COVID-19 and/or radiological pulmonary findings or 2 or more predefined COVID-19 symptoms. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome measures were indices of (maternal and severe neonatal/perinatal) morbidity and mortality; the individual components of these indices were secondary outcomes. Models for these outcomes were adjusted for country, month entering study, maternal age, and history of morbidity. Results: A total of 706 pregnant women with COVID-19 diagnosis and 1424 pregnant women without COVID-19 diagnosis were enrolled, all with broadly similar demographic characteristics (mean [SD] age, 30.2 [6.1] years). Overweight early in pregnancy occurred in 323 women (48.6%) with COVID-19 diagnosis and 554 women (40.2%) without. Women with COVID-19 diagnosis were at higher risk for preeclampsia/eclampsia (relative risk [RR], 1.76; 95% CI, 1.27-2.43), severe infections (RR, 3.38; 95% CI, 1.63-7.01), intensive care unit admission (RR, 5.04; 95% CI, 3.13-8.10), maternal mortality (RR, 22.3; 95% CI, 2.88-172), preterm birth (RR, 1.59; 95% CI, 1.30-1.94), medically indicated preterm birth (RR, 1.97; 95% CI, 1.56-2.51), severe neonatal morbidity index (RR, 2.66; 95% CI, 1.69-4.18), and severe perinatal morbidity and mortality index (RR, 2.14; 95% CI, 1.66-2.75). Fever and shortness of breath for any duration was associated with increased risk of severe maternal complications (RR, 2.56; 95% CI, 1.92-3.40) and neonatal complications (RR, 4.97; 95% CI, 2.11-11.69). Asymptomatic women with COVID-19 diagnosis remained at higher risk only for maternal morbidity (RR, 1.24; 95% CI, 1.00-1.54) and preeclampsia (RR, 1.63; 95% CI, 1.01-2.63). Among women who tested positive (98.1% by real-time polymerase chain reaction), 54 (13%) of their neonates tested positive. Cesarean delivery (RR, 2.15; 95% CI, 1.18-3.91) but not breastfeeding (RR, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.66-1.85) was associated with increased risk for neonatal test positivity. Conclusions and Relevance: In this multinational cohort study, COVID-19 in pregnancy was associated with consistent and substantial increases in severe maternal morbidity and mortality and neonatal complications when pregnant women with and without COVID-19 diagnosis were compared. The findings should alert pregnant individuals and clinicians to implement strictly all the recommended COVID-19 preventive measures.

Propuesta de un certificado de defunción para mejorar el registro y reporte de la muerte en el periodo perinatal / Proposal for a death certificate to improve recording and reporting of perinatal mortality

Objetivo. Analizar la forma en que se registran los nacimientos y la muerte en el periodo perinatal, en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), y documentar si el registro de la muerte, en este periodo, es adecuado. Material y métodos. Entre enero y marzo de 2000, se aplicó una encuesta en las 37 delegaciones del IMSS, para conocer, del año 1999, el total de nacimientos vivos y muertos, las defunciones ocurridas antes del séptimo día, considerando su edad gestacional y peso al nacimiento. Con estos datos se analizó la mortalidad hebdomadal e infantil y se calcularon las tasas correspondientes, incluyendo o desagregando a los niños con <1 000 g y <28 semanas de gestación. Resultados. Durante 1999 nacieron vivos en el IMSS 634 892 niños cuyo peso y edad gestacional se desconocen, y muertos 3 984 niños con ×28 semanas de gestación. Antes de la primera semana de vida extrauterina fallecieron 4 556 niños, de los cuales 1 385 (30.4 por ciento) pesaron <1 000 g y tuvieron <28 semanas de gestación. Al analizar la mortalidad con o sin estos niños, hubo un descenso de más de dos puntos de tasa en la mortalidad hebdomadal e infantil. Conclusiones. En este trabajo se muestra que la forma como actualmente se clasifica y reporta la muerte de los niños, en el periodo perinatal, es inadecuada. Se propone crear sistemas de información que permitan conocer el peso y la edad estacional de todos los nacimientos, así como un nuevo certificado de defunción para el registro de la muerte, en este periodo, que incluya dicha información; éste sustituiría a los certificados de defunción fetal y general actuales y permitiría elaborar reportes comparables con otros países. El texto completo en inglés de este artículo está disponible en: http://www.insp.mx/salud/index.html

Criterios y procedimientos actuales para la atención del trabajo de parto / Present criteria and procedures for medical attention during labor

En las últimas tres décadas la realización de la operación cesárea se ha incrementado en la mayoría de los países del mundo; como consecuencia de ello, han surgido numerosas publicaciones científicas en torno a las causas del aumento y a estrategias encaminadas a la reducción. Aunque existe controversia sobre las medidas propuestas, la mayoría estimula hacia una conducta médica más intervencionista en el curso del trabajo de parto, o bien, al reemplazo de ciertas indicaciones frecuentes mediante procedimientos obstétricos que permitan el nacimiento por vía vaginal. En México, específicamente en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, para 1996 uno de cada tres embarazos se resolvió a través de cesárea. La tendencia al incremento al parecer está vinculada con procedimientos heterogéneos sobre la vigilancia y manejo del trabajo de parto en las unidades médicas. Por lo anterior y dada la diversidad en el perfil profesional del personal que realiza la atención obstétrica en dicha institución, los objetivos principales de esta investigación son: a) revisar los criterios y procedimientos obstétricos más aceptados para la atención del trabajo de parto y sus complicaciones; b) proponer procedimientos obstétricos aplicables en las unidades médicas del propio Instituto (de acuerdo con la organización y recursos de éste), con el fin de contribuir para unificar criterios médicos y disminuir el número de cesáreas no justificadas

Terapia hormonal de reemplazo en el climaterio y la posmenopausia / Hormone replacement therapy in the climacteric and postmenopause

En la actualidad existe acuerdo general en que algunos beneficios de la terapéutica sustitutiva con estrógenos durante el climaterio y posmenopausia son la reducción en los riesgos de osteoporosis y de enfermedad cardiovascular, la supresión del síndrome climatérico, y el efecto favorable sobre el tracto genitourinario, los cuales superan claramente a los riesgos. Pese a ello, el uso prolongado (15 años o más) de estrógenos por mujeres en este periodo de la vida sigue siendo poco frecuente, aun en países con altos niveles educativos en salud, fenómeno atribuido, entre otros factores, a limitado conocimiento del médico y a educación insuficiente de la población acerca de los beneficios y riesgos reales de la terapia hormonal de reemplazo. Además de los factores anteriores, en México el uso de estrógenos con los fines mencio-nados es todavía más limitado debido a baja frecuencia de diagnóstico de los problemas asociados con el climaterio, falta de lineamientos simplificados para la selección de las opciones disponibles e insuficiente promoción educativa sobre el tema para la población general, lo que impacta desfavorablemente en una menor aceptabilidad y continuidad de uso de la terapia necesaria para obtener todos los beneficios potenciales en salud y calidad de vida para la mujer. En virtud de lo anterior, resulta conveniente revisar y difundir los criterios y procedimientos prácticos más aceptados en la actualidad para el tratamiento clínico de la terapia hormonal de reemplazo en el climaterio y posmenopausia, incluyendo contraindicaciones y riesgos más importantes, con el propósito de contribuir a uniformar y facilitar su empleo por el médico familiar y el ginecoobstetra en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social.

Prevención y tratamiento de la preeclampsia-eclampsia de la teoría a la practica / Prevention and treatment of pre-eclampsia-eclampsia from theory to practice

La preeclampsia-eclampsia constituye una de las causas más importantes de morbilidad y mortalidad materna en casi todo el mundo. En México y en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) ha sido la principal causa de muerte materna y es responsable de más de la tercera parte de las defunciones de esta naturaleza. La información disponible en el IMSS hace sospechar la ocurrencia de más de 30 mil casos anuales de dicha complicación. Debido al creciente interés mundial en indagar la etiopatogenia y hallar nuevos recursos para la prevención y tratamiento del padecimiento, el objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar la información más reciente y compararla con los contenidos técnicos de la normatividad institucional vigente, con el propósito de contribuir a la actualización de ésta. Adicionalmente se espera coadyuvar a la difusión de los criterios y procedimientos más aceptados en la actualidad para la prevención y tratamiento de pacientes con preeclampsia-eclampsia, entre el personal médico de los tres niveles de atención en el IMSS.

Características epidemiológicas de la preeclampsia-eclampsia en el IMSS / Epidemiologic characteristics of preeclampsia-eclampsia at IMSS

La preeclampsia-eclampsia sigue siendo una de las causas más importantes de morbilidad y muerte materna en casi todos los países industrializados y en desarrollo. Sus niveles y tendencias varían de acuerdo con las condiciones socioeconómicas de las poblaciones, la accesibilidad y oportunidad en el uso de los servicios de salud. Aunque en México esta complicación se ha identificado desde hace varios años como la principal causa de muerte materna en el Sistema Nacional de Salud, existe un conocimiento limitado de su perfil epidemiológico. Por ello, en este trabajo se revisa la información disponible en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social y se compara con la literatura médica nacional. Adicionalmente se describen algunos factores de riesgo asociados con la mortalidad por preeclampsia-eclampsia, así como la posible influencia de la calidad de la atención médica en sus niveles actuales, con el fin de brindar datos útiles para la planeación de estrategias y acciones destinadas a reducir el impacto desfavorable de esta patología en la salud materna

Mortalidad materna por preeclampsia-eclampsia en la Región La Raza (1988 a 1997) / Maternal mortality due to preeclampsia-eclampsia in the Region La Raza (1988 to 1997)

Entre ellas destaca la Región La Raza, cuya población representa 18.3 por ciento de toda la afiliada al IMSS. Objetivos: analizar los niveles de mortalidad por preeclampsia-eclampsia en la Región La Raza y compararlos con los registrados en las demás regiones del IMSS; caracterizar los factores de riesgo y previsibilidad de las muertes en dicha área, para contribuir con bases más sólidas a la planeación y diseño de estrategias encaminadas a reducirlas. Material y métodos: se revisaron las defunciones maternas por preeclampsia-eclampsia ocurridas entre 1988 y 1997 en unidades hospitalarias de la Región La Raza informadas y analizadas por los Comités Institucionales de Estudios en Mortalidad Materna y se compararon con las registradas en el resto de las regiones.Resultados: en el periodo estudiado ocurrieron 230 defunciones, 64.6 por ciento en pacientes con eclampsia. La tasa más elevada de mortalidad por edad la mostraron las mujeres de 35 años y más al embarazo (58.3 por cada 100 mil nacidos vivos); 31.3 por ciento de las fallecidas eran primigrávidas; 20.6 por ciento no tuvo atención prenatal; en 39.3 por ciento había transcurrido menos de siete días entre la última consulta y el fallecimiento; 25 por ciento se calificó como previsible al ingreso a la unidad en donde ocurrió. Conclusiones: para el periodo estudiado la mortalidad, morbilidad y letalidad por preeclampsia-eclampsia fue significativamente mayor en la Región La Raza que en el resto de las regiones del IMSS. Este comportamiento parece estar ligado, entre otros factores, con la limitada educación de la población para utilizar con oportunidad los servicios médicos

Experiencias y conocimientos sobre climaterio y menopausia en mujeres de la ciudad de México / Experience and knowledge of the climacterium and menopause in women in Mexico city, Mexico

Objetivo: Investigar experiencias y conocimientos sobre climaterio y menopausia, en mujeres derechohabientes del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), con el fin de obtener información para planear estrategias educativas que incrementen la demanda de atención en estos periodos.Material y métodos: estudio transversal y descriptivo mediante encuestas, en una muestra aleatoria simple de 495 mujeres de 50 a 59 años, usuarias de los servicios de medicina familiar en el Distrito Federal, representativa de esta población y ámbito con un nivel de confianza del 95 por ciento.Resultados: La edad promedio a la menopausia fue de 47.8 años. Los síntomas más frecuentes fueron bochornos (70.9 por ciento), depresión (60.2 por ciento), insomnio (53.5 por ciento) e irregularidades menstruales (37.8 por ciento); 51.1 por ciento de las mujeres solicitaron atención médica; solo 12.1 por ciento estaba recibiendo actualmente tratamiento, que consistía en hormonales en 81.6 por ciento.Alguna vez habían usado tratamiento 14.9 por ciento de las encuestadas, hormonales en 87.8 por ciento. El 83.8 por ciento de las mujeres conocía los síntomas del climaterio; 90.1 por ciento a la osteoporosis como una complicación postmenopáusica y 37.2 por ciento declaró saber del riesgo de enfermedad cardiovascular.La prevención de la osteoporosis y de la enfermedad coronaria la asociaron con calcio y ejercicio, pero solo 1 por ciento con el uso de hormonales.Conclusiones: Existe aceptable información sobre climatérico y osteoporosis postmenopáusica, pero menor en cuanto a enfermedad cardiovascular. La información declarada parece ser producto de la información comercial por medios masivos de comunicación más que de la educación en salud que proporcionan las instituciones.

Indicaciones y justificación de las cesáreas en el Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social / Indication and justification for cesarean surgery at the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS)

Objetivo: debido a la elevada frecuencia de cesáreas en el IMSS, se realizó un estudio para conocer indicaciones y justificación.Material y método: estudio transversal y retrospectivo en una muestra al azar simple nacional de 3,232 cesáreas entre junio de 1997 y junio de 1999. Resultados: las indicaciones más frecuentes fueron desproporción cefalopélvica (29.6 por ciento), cesárea previa (20.9 por ciento), sufrimiento fetal agudo (14.1 por ciento), cesárea iterativa (11.9 por ciento) y ruptura prematura de membranas (10.7 por ciento). En casos de desproporción cefalopélvica (DCP) el peso promedio de los productos al nacer fue 3,430g., 70.6 por ciento tenía contractilidad irregular y 21.7 por ciento recibió oxitocina; 78.2 por ciento tuvieron membranas íntegras y dilatación cervical de 4 cm o menor. En los casos de cesárea previa y DCP, el peso de los recién nacidos fue de 3,425 g; 81.7 por ciento de las pacientes tenían contractilidad irregular y 4.8 por ciento recibieron oxitocina. En las cesáreas por sufrimiento fetal agudo, 94.9 por ciento de los productos tuvieron Apgar de 8 o más a los 5 minutos.Conclusión: las indicaciones de cesárea en el IMSS son similares a lo informado en México y el mundo, pero con los datos existentes en los expedientes clínicos de este estudio, en la mayoría de los casos no se justifican.