Histone Deacetylase 3 Couples Mitochondria to Drive IL-1ß-Dependent Inflammation by Configuring Fatty Acid Oxidation.

Immune cell function depends on specific metabolic programs dictated by mitochondria, including nutrient oxidation, macromolecule synthesis, and post-translational modifications. Mitochondrial adaptations have been linked to acute and chronic inflammation, but the metabolic cues and precise mechanisms remain unclear. Here we reveal that histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) is essential for shaping mitochondrial adaptations for IL-1ß production in macrophages through non-histone deacetylation. In vivo, HDAC3 promoted lipopolysaccharide-induced acute inflammation and high-fat diet-induced chronic inflammation by enhancing NLRP3-dependent caspase-1 activation. HDAC3 configured the lipid profile in stimulated macrophages and restricted fatty acid oxidation (FAO) supported by exogenous fatty acids for mitochondria to acquire their adaptations and depolarization. Rather than affecting nuclear gene expression, HDAC3 translocated to mitochondria to deacetylate and inactivate an FAO enzyme, mitochondrial trifunctional enzyme subunit α. HDAC3 may serve as a controlling node that balances between acquiring mitochondrial adaptations and sustaining their fitness for IL-1ß-dependent inflammation.

Cholesterol Homeostatic Regulator SCAP-SREBP2 Integrates NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Cholesterol Biosynthetic Signaling in Macrophages.

Cholesterol metabolism has been linked to immune functions, but the mechanisms by which cholesterol biosynthetic signaling orchestrates inflammasome activation remain unclear. Here, we have shown that NLRP3 inflammasome activation is integrated with the maturation of cholesterol master transcription factor SREBP2. Importantly, SCAP-SREBP2 complex endoplasmic reticulum-to-Golgi translocation was required for optimal activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome both in vitro and in vivo. Enforced cholesterol biosynthetic signaling by sterol depletion or statins promoted NLPR3 inflammasome activation. However, this regulation did not predominantly depend on changes in cholesterol homeostasis controlled by the transcriptional activity of SREBP2, but relied on the escort activity of SCAP. Mechanistically, NLRP3 associated with SCAP-SREBP2 to form a ternary complex which translocated to the Golgi apparatus adjacent to a mitochondrial cluster for optimal inflammasome assembly. Our study reveals that, in addition to controlling cholesterol biosynthesis, SCAP-SREBP2 also serves as a signaling hub integrating cholesterol metabolism with inflammation in macrophages.

One-Carbon Metabolism Supports S-Adenosylmethionine and Histone Methylation to Drive Inflammatory Macrophages.

Activated macrophages adapt their metabolic pathways to drive the pro-inflammatory phenotype, but little is known about the biochemical underpinnings of this process. Here, we find that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activates the pentose phosphate pathway, the serine synthesis pathway, and one-carbon metabolism, the synergism of which drives epigenetic reprogramming for interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) expression. Glucose-derived ribose and one-carbon units fed by both glucose and serine metabolism are synergistically integrated into the methionine cycle through de novo ATP synthesis and fuel the generation of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) during LPS-induced inflammation. Impairment of these metabolic pathways that feed SAM generation lead to anti-inflammatory outcomes, implicating SAM as an essential metabolite for inflammatory macrophages. Mechanistically, SAM generation maintains a relatively high SAM:S-adenosylhomocysteine ratio to support histone H3 lysine 36 trimethylation for IL-1ß production. We therefore identify a synergistic effect of glucose and amino acid metabolism on orchestrating SAM availability that is intimately linked to the chromatin state for inflammation.

Bile Acids Control Inflammation and Metabolic Disorder through Inhibition of NLRP3 Inflammasome.

Reciprocal interactions between the metabolic system and immune cells play pivotal roles in diverse inflammatory diseases, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. The activation of bile acid-mediated signaling has been linked to improvement in metabolic syndromes and enhanced control of inflammation. Here, we demonstrated that bile acids inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation via the TGR5-cAMP-PKA axis. TGR5 bile acid receptor-induced PKA kinase activation led to the ubiquitination of NLRP3, which was associated with the PKA-induced phosphorylation of NLRP3 on a single residue, Ser 291. Furthermore, this PKA-induced phosphorylation of NLRP3 served as a critical brake on NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In addition, in vivo results indicated that bile acids and TGR5 activation blocked NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent inflammation, including lipopolysaccharide-induced systemic inflammation, alum-induced peritoneal inflammation, and type-2 diabetes-related inflammation. Altogether, our study unveils the PKA-induced phosphorylation and ubiquitination of NLRP3 and suggests TGR5 as a potential target for the treatment of NLRP3 inflammasome-related diseases.

Protein phosphatase 2A propels follicular T helper cell development in lupus.

Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells are important for generating humoral immune responses by helping B cells form germinal centers (GCs) and the production of high-affinity antibodies. However, aberrant Tfh cell expansion also contributes to the generation of self-reactive autoantibodies and promotes autoantibody-mediated autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Protein phosphatase 2A catalytic subunit alpha isoform (PP2A Cα) expression levels are elevated in peripheral T cells of SLE patients and positively correlate with autoantibody titers and disease activity. Here, we demonstrate a critical role of PP2A in Tfh differentiation by using T cell restricted PP2A Cα deficient mice. We observed impaired Tfh differentiation and GC response in two different classical Tfh induction models. Mechanistic studies revealed that downregulation of protein translation of the Tfh lineage transcription factor BCL6 in PP2A deficient T cells. Importantly, we found that PP2A deficiency by either gene knockout or chemical inhibition alleviated lupus severity in mice. Lastly, we confirmed a positive correlation between PP2A Cα and BCL6 protein levels in human CD4+ T cells from patients with SLE. In summary, our study revealed a critical role of PP2A in regulating Tfh cells and suggests it is a potential therapeutic target for lupus.

Luteolin inhibits the Nrf2 signaling pathway and tumor growth in vivo.

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is over-expressed in many types of tumor, promotes tumor growth, and confers resistance to anticancer therapy. Hence, Nrf2 is regarded as a novel therapeutic target in cancer. Previously, we reported that luteolin is a strong inhibitor of Nrf2 in vitro. Here, we showed that luteolin reduced the constitutive expression of NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 in mouse liver in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Further, luteolin inhibited the expression of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione transferases, decreasing the reduced glutathione in the liver of wild-type mice under both constitutive and butylated hydroxyanisole-induced conditions. In contrast, such distinct responses were not detected in Nrf2(-/-) mice. In addition, oral administration of luteolin, either alone or combined with intraperitoneal injection of the cytotoxic drug cisplatin, greatly inhibited the growth of xenograft tumors from non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell line A549 cells grown subcutaneously in athymic nude mice. Cell proliferation, the expression of Nrf2, and antioxidant enzymes were all reduced in tumor xenograft tissues. Furthermore, luteolin enhanced the anti-cancer effect of cisplatin. Together, our findings demonstrated that luteolin inhibits the Nrf2 pathway in vivo and can serve as an adjuvant in the chemotherapy of NSCLC.

Reconstitution System of NLRP3 Inflammasome in HEK293T Cells.

NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) inflammasome is a cytosolic multimeric protein complex that plays key roles in the host innate immune response to both pathogenic and sterile insults. Here we describe a comprehensive guide to study NLRP3 inflammasome activation in HEK293T cell reconstitution system, which could provide direct biochemical evidence in protein interaction and posttranslational modification of the complex.

Gasdermin D maintains bone mass by rewiring the endo-lysosomal pathway of osteoclastic bone resorption.

Gasdermin D (GSDMD)-mediated pyroptosis induces immunogenic cell death and promotes inflammation. However, the functions of GSDMD in tissue homeostasis remain unclear. Here, we identify a physiological function of GSDMD in osteoclasts via a non-lytic p20-generated protein, which prevents bone loss to maintain bone homeostasis. In the late stage of RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis, GSDMD underwent cleavage, which is dependent on RIPK1 and caspase-8/-3, to yield this p20 product. Gsdmd-deficient osteoclasts showed normal differentiation but enhanced bone resorption with excessive lysosomal activity. Mice with complete or myeloid-specific Gsdmd deletion exhibited increased trabecular bone loss and more severe aging/ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis. GSDMD p20 was preferentially localized to early endosomes and limited endo-lysosomal trafficking and maturation, relying on its oligomerization and control of phosphoinositide conversion by binding to phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI(3)P). We have thus identified an anti-osteoclastic function of GSDMD as a checkpoint for lysosomal maturation and secretion and linked this to bone homeostasis and endosome-lysosome biology.

Epithelial Gasdermin D shapes the host-microbial interface by driving mucus layer formation.

Goblet cells and their main secretory product, mucus, play crucial roles in orchestrating the colonic host-microbe interactions that help maintain gut homeostasis. However, the precise intracellular machinery underlying this goblet cell-induced mucus secretion remains poorly understood. Gasdermin D (GSDMD) is a recently identified pore-forming effector protein that causes pyroptosis, a lytic proinflammatory type of cell death occurring during various pathophysiological conditions. Here, we reveal an unexpected function of GSDMD in goblet cell mucin secretion and mucus layer formation. Specific deletion of Gsdmd in intestinal epithelial cells (ΔIEC) led to abrogated mucus secretion with a concomitant loss of the mucus layer. This impaired colonic mucus layer in GsdmdΔIEC mice featured a disturbed host-microbial interface and inefficient clearance of enteric pathogens from the mucosal surface. Mechanistically, stimulation of goblet cells activates caspases to process GSDMD via reactive oxygen species production; in turn, this activated GSDMD drives mucin secretion through calcium ion-dependent scinderin-mediated cortical F-actin disassembly, which is a key step in granule exocytosis. This study links epithelial GSDMD to the secretory granule exocytotic pathway and highlights its physiological nonpyroptotic role in shaping mucosal homeostasis in the gut.

Ubiquitination of NLRP3 by gp78/Insig-1 restrains NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

The NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) inflammasome plays a pivotal role in defending the host against infection as well as sterile inflammation. Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome is critically regulated by a de-ubiquitination mechanism, but little is known about how ubiquitination restrains NLRP3 activity. Here, we showed that the membrane-bound E3 ubiquitin ligase gp78 mediated mixed ubiquitination of NLRP3, which inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation by suppressing the oligomerization and subcellular translocation of NLRP3. In addition, the endoplasmic reticulum membrane protein insulin-induced gene 1 (Insig-1) was required for this gp78-NLRP3 interaction and gp78-mediated NLRP3 ubiquitination. gp78 or Insig-1 deficiency in myeloid cells led to exacerbated NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent inflammation in vivo, including lipopolysaccharide-induced systemic inflammation and alum-induced peritonitis. Taken together, our study identifies gp78-mediated NLRP3 ubiquitination as a regulatory mechanism that restrains inflammasome activation and highlights NLRP3 ubiquitination as a potential therapeutic target for inflammatory diseases.

Kir2.1-mediated membrane potential promotes nutrient acquisition and inflammation through regulation of nutrient transporters.

Immunometabolism contributes to inflammation, but how activated macrophages acquire extracellular nutrients to fuel inflammation is largely unknown. Here, we show that the plasma membrane potential (Vm) of macrophages mediated by Kir2.1, an inwardly-rectifying K+ channel, is an important determinant of nutrient acquisition and subsequent metabolic reprogramming promoting inflammation. In the absence of Kir2.1 activity, depolarized macrophage Vm lead to a caloric restriction state by limiting nutrient uptake and concomitant adaptations in nutrient conservation inducing autophagy, AMPK (Adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase), and GCN2 (General control nonderepressible 2), which subsequently depletes epigenetic substrates feeding histone methylation at loci of a cluster of metabolism-responsive inflammatory genes, thereby suppressing their transcription. Kir2.1-mediated Vm supports nutrient uptake by facilitating cell-surface retention of nutrient transporters such as 4F2hc and GLUT1 by its modulation of plasma membrane phospholipid dynamics. Pharmacological targeting of Kir2.1 alleviated inflammation triggered by LPS or bacterial infection in a sepsis model and sterile inflammation in human samples. These findings identify an ionic control of macrophage activation and advance our understanding of the immunomodulatory properties of Vm that links nutrient inputs to inflammatory diseases.

Tumor-associated macrophages are shaped by intratumoral high potassium via Kir2.1.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a unique niche governed by constant crosstalk within and across all intratumoral cellular compartments. In particular, intratumoral high potassium (K+) has shown immune-suppressive potency on T cells. However, as a pan-cancer characteristic associated with local necrosis, the impact of this ionic disturbance on innate immunity is unknown. Here, we reveal that intratumoral high K+ suppresses the anti-tumor capacity of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). We identify the inwardly rectifying K+ channel Kir2.1 as a central modulator of TAM functional polarization in high K+ TME, and its conditional depletion repolarizes TAMs toward an anti-tumor state, sequentially boosting local anti-tumor immunity. Kir2.1 deficiency disturbs the electrochemically dependent glutamine uptake, engendering TAM metabolic reprogramming from oxidative phosphorylation toward glycolysis. Kir2.1 blockade attenuates both murine tumor- and patient-derived xenograft growth. Collectively, our findings reveal Kir2.1 as a determinant and potential therapeutic target for regaining the anti-tumor capacity of TAMs within ionic-imbalanced TME.

Priming of NLRP3 inflammasome activation by Msn kinase MINK1 in macrophages.

The nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich-repeat containing family, pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is essential in inflammation and inflammatory disorders. Phosphorylation at various sites on NLRP3 differentially regulates inflammasome activation. The Ser725 phosphorylation site on NLRP3 is depicted in multiple inflammasome activation scenarios, but the importance and regulation of this site has not been clarified. The present study revealed that the phosphorylation of Ser725 was an essential step for the priming of the NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages. We also showed that Ser725 was directly phosphorylated by misshapen (Msn)/NIK-related kinase 1 (MINK1), depending on the direct interaction between MINK1 and the NLRP3 LRR domain. MINK1 deficiency reduced NLRP3 activation and suppressed inflammatory responses in mouse models of acute sepsis and peritonitis. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) upregulated the kinase activity of MINK1 and subsequently promoted inflammasome priming via NLRP3 Ser725 phosphorylation. Eliminating ROS suppressed NLRP3 activation and reduced sepsis and peritonitis symptoms in a MINK1-dependent manner. Altogether, our study reveals a direct regulation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by Msn family kinase MINK1 and suggests that modulation of MINK1 activity is a potential intervention strategy for inflammasome-related diseases.

AKT controls NLRP3 inflammasome activation by inducing DDX3X phosphorylation.

The NLRP3 inflammasome, a critical component of the innate immune system, induces caspase-1 activation and interleukin-1ß maturation and drives cell fate toward pyroptosis. However, the mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome activation still remains elusive. Here we provide evidence that AKT regulates NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Upon NLRP3 activation, AKT activity is inhibited by second stimulus-induced reactive oxygen species. In contrast, AKT activation leads to NLRP3 inhibition and improved mitochondrial fitness. Mechanistically, AKT induces the phosphorylation of the DDX3X (DEAD-box helicase 3, X-linked), a recently identified NLRP3 inflammasome component, and impairs the interaction between DDX3X and NLRP3. Furthermore, an AKT agonist reduces NLRP3-dependent inflammation in two in vivo models of LPS-induced sepsis and Alum-induced peritonitis. Altogether, our study highlights an important role of AKT in controlling NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Interplay of MKP-1 and Nrf2 drives tumor growth and drug resistance in non-small cell lung cancer.

Alterations in KEAP1/ NF-E2 p45-related factor 2 (NFE2L2/Nrf2) signaling pathway have been reported in 23% lung adenocarcinoma patients, suggesting that deregulation of the pathway is a major cancer driver. Here we report that mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase phosphatase 1 (MKP-1) drives tumor growth and drug resistance by up regulating transcription factor Nrf2. In non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and xenografts, MKP-1 knockdown triggered the down-regulation of the metabolic enzymes and cytoprotective proteins, which are the target genes of Nrf2. Consequently, the cell growth was markedly inhibited with decrease of tumor metabolisms and GSH contents. Moreover, MKP-1 silencing sensitized NSCLC cells to cisplatin treatment. Mechanistically, MKP-1 inhibited the ubiquitylation of Nrf2 via a direct interaction with the transcription factor. Nrf2 was hence stabilized and its transcriptional program was activated. Notably, Nrf2 elevated MKP-1 expression at transcriptional level. In human lung adenoma tumor samples, high levels of expression of MKP-1, Nrf2, and its target gene heme oxygenase 1 were closely correlated. Thus, MKP-1 and Nrf2 form a forward feedback loop in lung cancer cells, which stabilizing and activating Nrf2 to promote anabolic metabolism and GSH biosynthesis. This study uncovers a novel role of MKP-1 in the malignant evolution of cancers.

A rapid administration of GW4064 inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome activation independent of farnesoid X receptor agonism.

GW4064 is a small molecule known to be an agonist of the nuclear farnesoid X receptor (FXR). We found that GW4064 inhibits the NLR family CARD domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation in an FXR-independent manner as evidenced by its similar inhibitory effect on NLRP3 inflammasome activation in FXR-deficient macrophages. Interestingly, GW4064 decreases the nigericin-induced oligomerization and ubiquitination of ASC which is critical for the NLRP3 inflammasome activation. In vivo results indicate that GW4064 could partially rescue the symptoms of NLRP3-dependent inflammatory disease models. These results not only necessitate cautious interpretation of the biological function of GW4064 as an FXR agonist, but also provide a potential therapeutic approach using GW4064 in the treatment of NLRP3-related diseases.

Oxaliplatin activates the Keap1/Nrf2 antioxidant system conferring protection against the cytotoxicity of anticancer drugs.

Oxaliplatin is an important drug in the treatment of advanced metastatic colorectal cancer. NF-E2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a key transcription factor that controls genes encoding cytoprotective and detoxifying enzymes through antioxidant-response elements (AREs) in their regulatory regions. Here, we report that oxaliplatin is an activator of the Nrf2 signaling pathway, with upregulation of ARE-driven genes and glutathione elevation. An injection of oxaliplatin into mice enhanced the expression of glutathione transferases and antioxidant enzymes in the small and large intestines of wild-type (WT) mice but not Nrf2(-/-) mice, indicating that oxaliplatin activates Nrf2 in vivo. Oxaliplatin failed to increase Nrf2 accumulation in non-small-cell lung cancer A549 cells, which harbor a dysfunctional somatic mutation of KEAP1. However, forced expression of WT mKeap1 restored the ability of oxaliplatin to activate the transcription factor. Cys(151) in Keap1 was required for the response stimulated by oxaliplatin. In addition, dichloro(1,2-diaminocyclohexane) platinum, a metabolite of oxaliplatin, was found to have the same effect in activating the ARE-gene battery as its parent drug, whereas another metabolite, oxalate, was ineffective. Moreover, two other platinum derivatives, cisplatin and carboplatin, had no effect on the Keap1/Nrf2 system. Furthermore, activation of Nrf2 by oxaliplatin reduced the sensitivity of colon cancer cells to therapeutic drugs. Conversely, knockdown of Nrf2 by Nrf2 siRNA reduced oxaliplatin-induced chemoresistance. Our study showed that oxaliplatin exerts protection against the cytotoxicity of anticancer drugs via Nrf2, indicating an important role of Nrf2 in oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy.