Effects of Cooking with Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass on Stunting in Infants.

BACKGROUND: Household air pollution is associated with stunted growth in infants. Whether the replacement of biomass fuel (e.g., wood, dung, or agricultural crop waste) with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking can reduce the risk of stunting is unknown. METHODS: We conducted a randomized trial involving 3200 pregnant women 18 to 34 years of age in four low- and middle-income countries. Women at 9 to less than 20 weeks' gestation were randomly assigned to use a free LPG cookstove with continuous free fuel delivery for 18 months (intervention group) or to continue using a biomass cookstove (control group). The length of each infant was measured at 12 months of age, and personal exposures to fine particulate matter (particles with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤2.5 µm) were monitored starting at pregnancy and continuing until the infants were 1 year of age. The primary outcome for which data are presented in the current report - stunting (defined as a length-for-age z score that was more than two standard deviations below the median of a growth standard) at 12 months of age - was one of four primary outcomes of the trial. Intention-to-treat analyses were performed to estimate the relative risk of stunting. RESULTS: Adherence to the intervention was high, and the intervention resulted in lower prenatal and postnatal 24-hour personal exposures to fine particulate matter than the control (mean prenatal exposure, 35.0 µg per cubic meter vs. 103.3 µg per cubic meter; mean postnatal exposure, 37.9 µg per cubic meter vs. 109.2 µg per cubic meter). Among 3061 live births, 1171 (76.2%) of the 1536 infants born to women in the intervention group and 1186 (77.8%) of the 1525 infants born to women in the control group had a valid length measurement at 12 months of age. Stunting occurred in 321 of the 1171 infants included in the analysis (27.4%) of the infants born to women in the intervention group and in 299 of the 1186 infants included in the analysis (25.2%) of those born to women in the control group (relative risk, 1.10; 98.75% confidence interval, 0.94 to 1.29; P = 0.12). CONCLUSIONS: An intervention strategy starting in pregnancy and aimed at mitigating household air pollution by replacing biomass fuel with LPG for cooking did not reduce the risk of stunting in infants. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; HAPIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02944682.).

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass Cooking and Severe Infant Pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to household air pollution is a risk factor for severe pneumonia. The effect of replacing biomass cookstoves with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cookstoves on the incidence of severe infant pneumonia is uncertain. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, controlled trial involving pregnant women 18 to 34 years of age and between 9 to less than 20 weeks' gestation in India, Guatemala, Peru, and Rwanda from May 2018 through September 2021. The women were assigned to cook with unvented LPG stoves and fuel (intervention group) or to continue cooking with biomass fuel (control group). In each trial group, we monitored adherence to the use of the assigned cookstove and measured 24-hour personal exposure to fine particulate matter (particles with an aerodynamic diameter of ≤2.5 µm [PM2.5]) in the women and their offspring. The trial had four primary outcomes; the primary outcome for which data are presented in the current report was severe pneumonia in the first year of life, as identified through facility surveillance or on verbal autopsy. RESULTS: Among 3200 pregnant women who had undergone randomization, 3195 remained eligible and gave birth to 3061 infants (1536 in the intervention group and 1525 in the control group). High uptake of the intervention led to a reduction in personal exposure to PM2.5 among the children, with a median exposure of 24.2 µg per cubic meter (interquartile range, 17.8 to 36.4) in the intervention group and 66.0 µg per cubic meter (interquartile range, 35.2 to 132.0) in the control group. A total of 175 episodes of severe pneumonia were identified during the first year of life, with an incidence of 5.67 cases per 100 child-years (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.55 to 7.07) in the intervention group and 6.06 cases per 100 child-years (95% CI, 4.81 to 7.62) in the control group (incidence rate ratio, 0.96; 98.75% CI, 0.64 to 1.44; P = 0.81). No severe adverse events were reported to be associated with the intervention, as determined by the trial investigators. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of severe pneumonia among infants did not differ significantly between those whose mothers were assigned to cook with LPG stoves and fuel and those whose mothers were assigned to continue cooking with biomass stoves. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; HAPIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02944682.).

Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass for Cooking and Effects on Birth Weight.

BACKGROUND: Exposure during pregnancy to household air pollution caused by the burning of solid biomass fuel is associated with adverse health outcomes, including low birth weight. Whether the replacement of a biomass cookstove with a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cookstove would result in an increase in birth weight is unclear. METHODS: We performed a randomized, controlled trial involving pregnant women (18 to <35 years of age and at 9 to <20 weeks' gestation as confirmed on ultrasonography) in Guatemala, India, Peru, and Rwanda. The women were assigned in a 1:1 ratio to use a free LPG cookstove and fuel (intervention group) or to continue using a biomass cookstove (control group). Birth weight, one of four prespecified primary outcomes, was the primary outcome for this report; data for the other three outcomes are not yet available. Birth weight was measured within 24 hours after birth. In addition, 24-hour personal exposures to fine particulate matter (particles with a diameter of ≤2.5 µm [PM2.5]), black carbon, and carbon monoxide were measured at baseline and twice during pregnancy. RESULTS: A total of 3200 women underwent randomization; 1593 were assigned to the intervention group, and 1607 to the control group. Uptake of the intervention was nearly complete, with traditional biomass cookstoves being used at a median rate of less than 1 day per month. After randomization, the median 24-hour personal exposure to fine particulate matter was 23.9 µg per cubic meter in the intervention group and 70.7 µg per cubic meter in the control group. Among 3061 live births, a valid birth weight was available for 94.9% of the infants born to women in the intervention group and for 92.7% of infants born to those in the control group. The mean (±SD) birth weight was 2921±474.3 g in the intervention group and 2898±467.9 g in the control group, for an adjusted mean difference of 19.6 g (95% confidence interval, -10.1 to 49.2). CONCLUSIONS: The birth weight of infants did not differ significantly between those born to women who used LPG cookstoves and those born to women who used biomass cookstoves. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; HAPIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT02944682.).

Household Air Pollution Interventions to Improve Health in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: An Official American Thoracic Society Research Statement.

Background: An estimated 3 billion people, largely in low- and middle-income countries, rely on unclean fuels for cooking, heating, and lighting to meet household energy needs. The resulting exposure to household air pollution (HAP) is a leading cause of pneumonia, chronic lung disease, and other adverse health effects. In the last decade, randomized controlled trials of clean cooking interventions to reduce HAP have been conducted. We aim to provide guidance on how to interpret the findings of these trials and how they should inform policy makers and practitioners.Methods: We assembled a multidisciplinary working group of international researchers, public health practitioners, and policymakers with expertise in household air pollution from within academia, the American Thoracic Society, funders, nongovernmental organizations, and global organizations, including the World Bank and the World Health Organization. We performed a literature search, convened four sessions via web conference, and developed consensus conclusions and recommendations via the Delphi method.Results: The committee reached consensus on 14 conclusions and recommendations. Although some trials using cleaner-burning biomass stoves or cleaner-cooking fuels have reduced HAP exposure, the committee was divided (with 55% saying no and 45% saying yes) on whether the studied interventions improved measured health outcomes.Conclusions: HAP is associated with adverse health effects in observational studies. However, it remains unclear which household energy interventions reduce exposure, improve health, can be scaled, and are sustainable. Researchers should engage with policy makers and practitioners working to scale cleaner energy solutions to understand and address their information needs.

Burden of disease attributable to unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in domestic settings: a global analysis for selected adverse health outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Assessments of disease burden are important to inform national, regional, and global strategies and to guide investment. We aimed to estimate the drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH)-attributable burden of disease for diarrhoea, acute respiratory infections, undernutrition, and soil-transmitted helminthiasis, using the WASH service levels used to monitor the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as counterfactual minimum risk-exposure levels. METHODS: We assessed the WASH-attributable disease burden of the four health outcomes overall and disaggregated by region, age, and sex for the year 2019. We calculated WASH-attributable fractions of diarrhoea and acute respiratory infections by country using modelled WASH exposures and exposure-response relationships from two updated meta-analyses. We used the WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene public database to estimate population exposure to different WASH service levels. WASH-attributable undernutrition was estimated by combining the population attributable fractions (PAF) of diarrhoea caused by unsafe WASH and the PAF of undernutrition caused by diarrhoea. Soil-transmitted helminthiasis was fully attributed to unsafe WASH. FINDINGS: We estimate that 1·4 (95% CI 1·3-1·5) million deaths and 74 (68-80) million disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) could have been prevented by safe WASH in 2019 across the four designated outcomes, representing 2·5% of global deaths and 2·9% of global DALYs from all causes. The proportion of diarrhoea that is attributable to unsafe WASH is 0·69 (0·65-0·72), 0·14 (0·13-0·17) for acute respiratory infections, and 0·10 (0·09-0·10) for undernutrition, and we assume that the entire disease burden from soil-transmitted helminthiasis was attributable to unsafe WASH. INTERPRETATION: WASH-attributable burden of disease estimates based on the levels of service established under the SDG framework show that progress towards the internationally agreed goal of safely managed WASH services for all would yield major public-health returns. FUNDING: WHO and Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office.

Heat Exposure among Adult Women in Rural Tamil Nadu, India.

Exposure to heat is associated with a substantial burden of disease and is an emerging issue in the context of climate change. Heat is of particular concern in India, which is one of the world's hottest countries and also most populous, where relatively little is known about personal heat exposure, particularly in rural areas. Here, we leverage data collected as part of a randomized controlled trial to describe personal temperature exposures of adult women (40-79 years of age) in rural Tamil Nadu. We also characterize measurement error in heat exposure assessment by comparing personal exposure measurements to the nearest ambient monitoring stations and to commonly used modeled temperature data products. We find that temperatures differ across individuals in the same area on the same day, sometimes by more than 5 °C within the same hour, and that some individuals experience sharp increases in heat exposure in the early morning or evening, potentially a result of cooking with solid fuels. We find somewhat stronger correlations between the personal exposure measurements and the modeled products than with ambient monitors. We did not find evidence of systematic biases, which indicates that adjusting for discrepancies between different exposure measurement methods is not straightforward.

Addressing Fecal Contamination in Rural Kenyan Households: The Roles of Environmental Interventions and Animal Ownership.

Combined water, sanitation, and handwashing (WSH) interventions could reduce fecal contamination along more transmission pathways than single interventions alone. We measured Escherichia coli levels in 3909 drinking water samples, 2691 child hand rinses, and 2422 toy ball rinses collected from households enrolled in a 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating single and combined WSH interventions. Water treatment with chlorine reduced E. coli in drinking water. A combined WSH intervention improved water quality by the same magnitude but did not affect E. coli levels on hands or toys. One potential explanation for the limited impact of the sanitation intervention (upgraded latrines) is failure to address dog and livestock fecal contamination. Small ruminant (goat or sheep) ownership was associated with increased E. coli levels in stored water and on child hands. Cattle and poultry ownership was protective against child stunting, and domesticated animal ownership was not associated with child diarrhea. Our findings do not support restricting household animal ownership to prevent child diarrheal disease or stunting but do support calls for WSH infrastructure that can more effectively reduce household fecal contamination.

Factors Determining Black Carbon Exposures among Pregnant Women Enrolled in the HAPIN Trial.

Residential biomass burning is an important source of black carbon (BC) exposure among rural communities in low- and middle-income countries. We collected 7165 personal BC samples and individual/household level information from 3103 pregnant women enrolled in the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network trial. Women in the intervention arm received free liquefied petroleum gas stoves and fuel throughout pregnancy; women in the control arm continued the use of biomass stoves. Median (IQR) postintervention BC exposures were 9.6 µg/m3 (5.2-14.0) for controls and 2.8 µg/m3 (1.6-4.8) for the intervention group. Using mixed models, we characterized predictors of BC exposure and assessed how exposure contrasts differed between arms by select predictors. Primary stove type was the strongest predictor (R2 = 0.42); the models including kerosene use, kitchen location, education, occupation, or stove use hours also provided additional explanatory power from the base model adjusted only for the study site. Our full, trial-wide, model explained 48% of the variation in BC exposures. We found evidence that the BC exposure contrast between arms differed by study site, adherence to the assigned study stove, and whether the participant cooked. Our findings highlight factors that may be addressed before and during studies to implement more impactful cookstove intervention trials.

Effect of a behavior change and hardware intervention on safe child feces management practices in rural Odisha, India: a cluster-randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Poor child feces management contributes to enteropathogen exposure and, consequently, is associated with diarrheal disease and negative impacts on child growth. Despite high latrine coverage, only 37% of Indian households safely dispose of their child's feces into a latrine or have the child use the latrine, with the lowest rate in the state of Odisha at 12%. We evaluated a behavior change and hardware intervention designed to improve caregiver safe disposal of child feces and child latrine use. METHODS: We conducted a cluster-randomized controlled trial among 74 villages in rural Odisha, India. Eligible villages previously participated in a water and sanitation infrastructure program. Following a baseline survey, half the villages were assigned to intervention and half to control. Caregivers of children < 5 years old from households with a latrine were eligible to participate. The intervention included five behavior change activities. Hardware was provided at the first activity, based on child age, to aid safe disposal and latrine training (wash basin and bucket with lid for children < 7 months old; latrine training mat platform with removable tray for children 7 to 48 months old). The primary outcome was caregiver reported 'safe disposal' as defined by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) which encompasses two behaviors: caregiver disposal of child's feces into a latrine and child latrine use. Safe disposal was measured four to six months after intervention delivery (endline). RESULTS: Endline analysis included 665 intervention caregivers (840 children) and 634 control caregivers (785 children). Prevalence of JMP-defined safe disposal was 1.16 times greater in the intervention arm compared to control (77.7% vs. 65.9%; prevalence ratio [PR] 1.16, 95% CI 1.04-1.29), with higher prevalence of caregiver safe disposal (18.6% vs. 13.6%; PR 1.46, 95% CI 1.12-1.92) but no significant difference in child latrine use (59.0% vs. 52.2%; PR 1.06, 95% CI 0.95-1.18). When restricted to children < 3 years old, JMP-defined safe disposal was 1.42 times greater (67.5% vs. 46.7%; PR 1.42 95% CI 1.21-1.67) with higher prevalence of both caregiver safe disposal (34.6% vs. 25.7%; PR 1.44, 95% CI 1.11-1.86) and child latrine use (32.9% vs. 20.9%; PR 1.41, 95% CI 1.08-1.83). CONCLUSIONS: The intervention increased JMP-defined safe disposal, with substantial improvements in both caregiver safe disposal and child latrine use among children < 3 years old. While future research is needed to demonstrate sustainability of these effects, our results suggest a potentially scalable intervention for improving child feces disposal and reducing disease. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial was retrospectively registered at ISRCTN15831099 on 18/02/2020, which was approximately two months after the first participant was recruited for the baseline survey on 02/12/2019.

Effectiveness of interventions to improve drinking water, sanitation, and handwashing with soap on risk of diarrhoeal disease in children in low-income and middle-income settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Estimates of the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions that provide high levels of service on childhood diarrhoea are scarce. We aimed to provide up-to-date estimates on the burden of disease attributable to WASH and on the effects of different types of WASH interventions on childhood diarrhoea in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). METHODS: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we updated previous reviews following their search strategy by searching MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and BIOSIS Citation Index for studies of basic WASH interventions and of WASH interventions providing a high level of service, published between Jan 1, 2016, and May 25, 2021. We included randomised and non-randomised controlled trials conducted at household or community level that matched exposure categories of the so-called service ladder approach of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for WASH. Two reviewers independently extracted study-level data and assessed risk of bias using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and certainty of evidence using a modified Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach. We analysed extracted relative risks (RRs) and 95% CIs using random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regression models. This study is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42016043164. FINDINGS: 19 837 records were identified from the search, of which 124 studies were included, providing 83 water (62 616 children), 20 sanitation (40 799 children), and 41 hygiene (98 416 children) comparisons. Compared with untreated water from an unimproved source, risk of diarrhoea was reduced by up to 50% with water treated at point of use (POU): filtration (n=23 studies; RR 0·50 [95% CI 0·41-0·60]), solar treatment (n=13; 0·63 [0·50-0·80]), and chlorination (n=25; 0·66 [0·56-0·77]). Compared with an unimproved source, provision of an improved drinking water supply on premises with higher water quality reduced diarrhoea risk by 52% (n=2; 0·48 [0·26-0·87]). Overall, sanitation interventions reduced diarrhoea risk by 24% (0·76 [0·61-0·94]). Compared with unimproved sanitation, providing sewer connection reduced diarrhoea risk by 47% (n=5; 0·53 [0·30-0·93]). Promotion of handwashing with soap reduced diarrhoea risk by 30% (0·70 [0·64-0·76]). INTERPRETATION: WASH interventions reduced risk of diarrhoea in children in LMICs. Interventions supplying either water filtered at POU, higher water quality from an improved source on premises, or basic sanitation services with sewer connection were associated with increased reductions. Our results support higher service levels called for under SDG 6. Notably, no studies evaluated interventions that delivered access to safely managed WASH services, the level of service to which universal coverage by 2030 is committed under the SDG. FUNDING: WHO, Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Joint Food and Water Insecurity Had a Multiplicative Effect on Women's Depression in Urban Informal Settlements in Makassar, Indonesia during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Women living in urban informal settlements may be particularly vulnerable to the detrimental effects of the COVID-19 pandemic because of increased economic and psychosocial stressors in resource-limited environments. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to assess the associations between food and water insecurity during the pandemic and depression among women living in the urban informal settlements in Makassar, Indonesia. METHODS: We implemented surveys at 3 time points among women enrolled in the Revitalizing Informal Settlements and their Environments trial. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-10 (CESD-10) between November and December 2019 and again between February and March 2021. Food insecurity was measured using questions from the Innovation for Poverty Action's Research for Effective COVID-19 Reponses survey and water insecurity was measured using the Household Water Insecurity Experiences Short Form. Both were measured between August and September 2020. We built 3 multivariate quantile linear regression models to assess the effects of water insecurity, food insecurity, and joint food and water insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic on CESD-10 score. RESULTS: In models with the full sample (n = 323), food insecurity (ß: 1.48; 95% CI: 0.79, 2.17), water insecurity (ß: 0.13; 95% CI: -0.01, 0.26), and joint food and water insecurity (ß: 2.40; 95% CI: 1.43, 3.38) were positively associated with CESD-10 score. In subgroup analyses of respondents for whom we had prepandemic CESD-10 scores (n = 221), joint food and water insecurity (ß: 1.96; 95% CI: 0.78, 3.15) maintained the strongest relationship with CESD-10 score. A limitation of this study is that inconsistency in respondents from households across the survey waves reduced the sample size used for this study. CONCLUSIONS: Our results find a larger association between depression and joint resource insecurity than with water or food insecurity alone, underlining the importance of addressing food and water insecurity together, particularly as they relate to women's mental health and well-being.

Health risks of solid waste management practices in rural Ghana: A semi-quantitative approach toward a solid waste safety plan.

Inadequate solid waste management (SWM) can lead to environmental contamination and human health risks. The health risks from poor SWM can vary based on specific practices and exposure pathways. Thus, it is necessary to adequately understand the local context. This information, however, is rarely available in low-resource settings, particularly in rural areas. A solid waste safety plan could be helpful in these settings for gathering necessary data to assess and minimize health risks. As a step in developing such a tool, a semi-quantitative health risk analysis of SWM practices in nine Ghanaian rural villages was undertaken. Data on SWM in each village were collected through qualitative field observations and semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders. SWM-related health risks were assessed using the collected data, similar case studies in the scientific literature and dialogue among an assembled team of experts. The analysis identified context-specific practices and exposure pathways that may present the most substantial health risks as well as targeted solutions for mitigation risks. A risk assessment matrix was developed to quantify SWM risks as low, medium, high, or very high based on the likelihood and severity of identified hazards. The highest SWM risks were identified from dumpsites and uncontrolled burying of solid waste. More specifically, a very high or high risk of infectious and vector-borne diseases from SWM in the villages was identified, both in the disposal of solid waste in dumpsites and uncontrolled burying of solid waste. Additionally, a very high or high risk of inhalation, ingestion or dermal contact with contaminants was found in the disposal of solid waste in dumpsites, open burning of waste and reuse of waste from dumpsites as compost. The results demonstrate the potential value of a solid waste safety plan and a parsimonious approach to collect key local data to inform its contents.

Interventions to improve sanitation for preventing diarrhoea.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea is a major contributor to the global disease burden, particularly amongst children under five years in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). As many of the infectious agents associated with diarrhoea are transmitted through faeces, sanitation interventions to safely contain and manage human faeces have the potential to reduce exposure and diarrhoeal disease. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effectiveness of sanitation interventions for preventing diarrhoeal disease, alone or in combination with other WASH interventions. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, LILACS, and Chinese language databases available under the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI-CAJ). We also searched the metaRegister of Controlled Trials (mRCT) and conference proceedings, contacted researchers, and searched references of included studies. The last search date was 16 February 2022. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, non-randomized controlled trials (NRCTs), controlled before-and-after studies (CBAs), and matched cohort studies of interventions aimed at introducing or expanding the coverage and/or use of sanitation facilities in children and adults in any country or population. Our primary outcome of interest was diarrhoea and secondary outcomes included dysentery (bloody diarrhoea), persistent diarrhoea, hospital or clinical visits for diarrhoea, mortality, and adverse events. We included sanitation interventions whether they were conducted independently or in combination with other interventions. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed eligible studies, extracted relevant data, assessed risk of bias, and assessed the certainty of evidence using the GRADE approach. We used meta-analyses to estimate pooled measures of effect, described results narratively, and investigated potential sources of heterogeneity using subgroup analyses. MAIN RESULTS: Fifty-one studies met our inclusion criteria, with a total of 238,535 participants. Of these, 50 studies had sufficient information to be included in quantitative meta-analysis, including 17 cluster-RCTs and 33 studies with non-randomized study designs (20 NRCTs, one CBA, and 12 matched cohort studies). Most were conducted in LMICs and 86% were conducted in whole or part in rural areas. Studies covered three broad types of interventions: (1) providing access to any sanitation facility to participants without existing access practising open defecation, (2) improving participants' existing sanitation facility, or (3) behaviour change messaging to improve sanitation access or practices without providing hardware or subsidy, although many studies overlapped multiple categories. There was substantial heterogeneity amongst individual study results for all types of interventions. Providing access to any sanitation facility Providing access to sanitation facilities was evaluated in seven cluster-RCTs, and may reduce diarrhoea prevalence in all age groups (risk ratio (RR) 0.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.73 to 1.08; 7 trials, 40,129 participants, low-certainty evidence). In children under five years, access may have little or no effect on diarrhoea prevalence (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.16, 4 trials, 16,215 participants, low-certainty evidence). Additional analysis in non-randomized studies was generally consistent with these findings. Pooled estimates across randomized and non-randomized studies provided similar protective estimates (all ages: RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.94; 15 studies, 73,511 participants; children < 5 years: RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.02; 11 studies, 25,614 participants).  Sanitation facility improvement Interventions designed to improve existing sanitation facilities were evaluated in three cluster-RCTs in children under five and may reduce diarrhoea prevalence (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.69 to 1.06; 3 trials, 14,900 participants, low-certainty evidence). However, some of these interventions, such as sewerage connection, are not easily randomized. Non-randomized studies across participants of all ages provided estimates that improving sanitation facilities may reduce diarrhoea, but may be subject to confounding (RR 0.61, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.74; 23 studies, 117,639 participants, low-certainty evidence). Pooled estimates across randomized and non-randomized studies provided similar protective estimates (all ages: RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.78; 26 studies, 132,539 participants; children < 5 years: RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.54 to 0.91, 12 studies, 23,353 participants).  Behaviour change messaging only (no hardware or subsidy provided) Strategies to promote behaviour change to construct, upgrade, or use sanitation facilities were evaluated in seven cluster-RCTs in children under five, and probably reduce diarrhoea prevalence (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.69 to 0.98; 7 studies, 28,909 participants, moderate-certainty evidence). Additional analysis from two non-randomized studies found no effect, though with very high uncertainty. Pooled estimates across randomized and non-randomized studies provided similar protective estimates (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.73 to 1.01; 9 studies, 31,080 participants). No studies measured the effects of this type of intervention in older populations.  Any sanitation intervention A pooled analysis of cluster-RCTs across all sanitation interventions demonstrated that the interventions may reduce diarrhoea prevalence in all ages (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.76 to 0.95, 17 trials, 83,938 participants, low-certainty evidence) and children under five (RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.77 to 0.97; 14 trials, 60,024 participants, low-certainty evidence). Non-randomized comparisons also demonstrated a protective effect, but may be subject to confounding. Pooled estimates across randomized and non-randomized studies provided similar protective estimates (all ages: RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.82; 50 studies, 237,130 participants; children < 5 years: RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.71 to 0.89; 32 studies, 80,047 participants). In subgroup analysis, there was some evidence of larger effects in studies with increased coverage amongst all participants (75% or higher coverage levels) and also some evidence that the effect decreased over longer follow-up times for children under five years. There was limited evidence on other outcomes. However, there was some evidence that any sanitation intervention was protective against dysentery (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.54 to 1.00; 5 studies, 34,025 participants) and persistent diarrhoea (RR 0.57, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.75; 2 studies, 2665 participants), but not against clinic visits for diarrhoea (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.44 to 1.67; 2 studies, 3720 participants) or all-cause mortality (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.89 to1.09; 7 studies, 46,123 participants). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence that sanitation interventions are effective at preventing diarrhoea, both for young children and all age populations. The actual level of effectiveness, however, varies by type of intervention and setting. There is a need for research to better understand the factors that influence effectiveness.

Resources and Geographic Access to Care for Severe Pediatric Pneumonia in Four Resource-limited Settings.

Rationale: Pneumonia is the leading cause of death in children worldwide. Identifying and appropriately managing severe pneumonia in a timely manner improves outcomes. Little is known about the readiness of healthcare facilities to manage severe pediatric pneumonia in low-resource settings. Objectives: As part of the HAPIN (Household Air Pollution Intervention Network) trial, we sought to identify healthcare facilities that were adequately resourced to manage severe pediatric pneumonia in Jalapa, Guatemala (J-GUA); Puno, Peru (P-PER); Kayonza, Rwanda (K-RWA); and Tamil Nadu, India (T-IND). We conducted a facility-based survey of available infrastructure, staff, equipment, and medical consumables. Facilities were georeferenced, and a road network analysis was performed. Measurements and Main Results: Of the 350 healthcare facilities surveyed, 13% had adequate resources to manage severe pneumonia, 37% had pulse oximeters, and 44% had supplemental oxygen. Mean (±SD) travel time to an adequately resourced facility was 41 ± 19 minutes in J-GUA, 99 ± 64 minutes in P-PER, 40 ± 19 minutes in K-RWA, and 31 ± 19 minutes in T-IND. Expanding pulse oximetry coverage to all facilities reduced travel time by 44% in J-GUA, 29% in P-PER, 29% in K-RWA, and 11% in T-IND (all P < 0.001). Conclusions: Most healthcare facilities in low-resource settings of the HAPIN study area were inadequately resourced to care for severe pediatric pneumonia. Early identification of cases and timely referral is paramount. The provision of pulse oximeters to all health facilities may be an effective approach to identify cases earlier and refer them for care and in a timely manner.

Association between personal exposure to household air pollution and gestational blood pressure among women using solid cooking fuels in rural Tamil Nadu, India.

BACKGROUND: The Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial is an ongoing multi-center randomized controlled trial assessing the impact of a liquified petroleum gas (LPG) cookstove and fuel intervention on health. Given the potential impacts of household air pollution (HAP) exposure from burning solid fuels on cardiovascular health during pregnancy, we sought to determine whether baseline exposures to particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5), black carbon (BC) and carbon monoxide (CO) were associated with blood pressure among 799 pregnant women in Tamil Nadu, India, one of the HAPIN trial centers. METHODS: Multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the association between 24-h personal exposure to PM2.5/BC/CO and systolic and diastolic blood pressure, controlling for maternal age, body mass index (BMI), mother's education, household wealth, gestational age, and season. At the time of measurement, women were between 9- and 20-weeks of gestation. RESULTS: We found that systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were higher in pregnant women exposed to higher levels of HAP, though only the result for CO and DBP reached conventional statistical significance (p < 0.05). We observed a positive association between CO and DBP among the entire study cohort: a 1-log µg/m3 increase in CO exposure was associated with 0.36 mmHg higher DBP (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.02 to 0.70). The effect was stronger in pregnant women with higher CO exposures (in the 3rd [≥ 0.9 and < 2.1 ppm] and 4th quartiles [≥ 2.1 and ≤ 46.9 ppm]). We also found that pregnant women with PM2.5 exposures in the highest quartile (≥ 129.9 and ≤ 2100 µg/m3) had a borderline significant association (p = 0.054) with DBP compared to those who had PM2.5 exposures in the lowest quartile (≥ 9.4 and < 47.7 µg/m3). No evidence of association was observed for BC exposure and blood pressure. CONCLUSION: This study contributes to limited evidence regarding the relationship between HAP exposure and blood pressure among women during pregnancy, a critical window for both mother and child's life-course health. Results from this cross-sectional study suggest that exposures to PM2.5 and CO from solid fuel use are associated with higher blood pressure in pregnant women during their first or second trimester.

Study design and rationale for a cluster randomized trial of a safe child feces management intervention in rural Odisha, India.

BACKGROUND: Poor child feces management (CFM) is believed to be an important source of exposure to enteric pathogens that contribute to a large disease burden in low-income settings. While access to sanitation facilities is improving, national surveys indicate that even households with latrines often do not safely dispose of their child's feces. Working with caregivers in rural Odisha, India, we co-developed an intervention aimed at improving safe disposal of child feces and encouraging child latrine use at an earlier age. We describe the rationale for the intervention and summarize the protocol for a cluster randomized trial (CRT) to evaluate its effectiveness at changing CFM practices. METHODS: The intervention consists of six behavior change strategies together with hardware provision: wash basin and bucket with lid to aid safe management of soiled nappies and a novel latrine training mat to aid safe disposal and latrine training. The intervention will be offered at the village level to interested caregivers of children < 5 years of age by a community-based organization. Following a baseline survey, 74 villages were randomly allocated to either intervention or control arm. The primary outcome is caregiver reported safe disposal of child feces after last defecation, either by the caregiver disposing of the child's feces into the latrine or the child using the latrine, measured approximately four to six months following intervention delivery. Secondary outcomes include fecal contamination of household drinking water and the childs' hands. A process evaluation will also be conducted to assess intervention fidelity and reach, and explore implementer and participant feedback. DISCUSSION: This study addresses a crucial knowledge gap in sanitation by developing a scalable intervention to improve safe management of child feces. The behavior change strategies were designed following the Risks, Attitudes, Norms, Abilities and Self-Regulation (RANAS) approach, which has shown to be effective for other environmental behavior change interventions in low-income settings. The latrine training mat hardware is a novel design developed cooperatively and manufactured locally. The evaluation follows a rigorous CRT study design assessing the impact of the intervention on CFM behavior change, as well as fecal contamination of two sources of potential exposure. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial is registered at ISRCTN: ISRCTN15831099.

A risk assessment tool for resumption of research activities during the COVID-19 pandemic for field trials in low resource settings.

RATIONALE: The spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 has suspended many non-COVID-19 related research activities. Where restarting research activities is permitted, investigators need to evaluate the risks and benefits of resuming data collection and adapt procedures to minimize risk. OBJECTIVES: In the context of the multicountry Household Air Pollution Intervention (HAPIN) trial conducted in rural, low-resource settings, we developed a framework to assess the risk of each trial activity and to guide protective measures. Our goal is to maximize the integrity of reseach aims while minimizing infection risk based on the latest scientific understanding of the virus. METHODS: We drew on a combination of expert consultations, risk assessment frameworks, institutional guidance and literature to develop our framework. We then systematically graded clinical, behavioral, laboratory and field environmental health research activities in four countries for both adult and child subjects using this framework. National and local government recommendations provided the minimum safety guidelines for our work. RESULTS: Our framework assesses risk based on staff proximity to the participant, exposure time between staff and participants, and potential viral aerosolization while performing the activity. For each activity, one of four risk levels, from minimal to unacceptable, is assigned and guidance on protective measures is provided. Those activities that can potentially aerosolize the virus are deemed the highest risk. CONCLUSIONS: By applying a systematic, procedure-specific approach to risk assessment for each trial activity, we were able to protect our participants and research team and to uphold our ability to deliver on the research commitments we have made to our staff, participants, local communities, and funders. This framework can be tailored to other research studies conducted in similar settings during the current pandemic, as well as potential future outbreaks with similar transmission dynamics. The trial is registered with clinicaltrials.gov NCT02944682 on October 26. 2016 .

Meteorological factors and childhood diarrhea in Peru, 2005-2015: a time series analysis of historic associations, with implications for climate change.

BACKGROUND: Global temperatures are projected to rise by ≥2 °C by the end of the century, with expected impacts on infectious disease incidence. Establishing the historic relationship between temperature and childhood diarrhea is important to inform future vulnerability under projected climate change scenarios. METHODS: We compiled a national dataset from Peruvian government data sources, including weekly diarrhea surveillance records, annual administered doses of rotavirus vaccination, annual piped water access estimates, and daily temperature estimates. We used generalized estimating equations to quantify the association between ambient temperature and childhood (< 5 years) weekly reported clinic visits for diarrhea from 2005 to 2015 in 194 of 195 Peruvian provinces. We estimated the combined effect of the mean daily high temperature lagged 1, 2, and 3 weeks, in the eras before (2005-2009) and after (2010-2015) widespread rotavirus vaccination in Peru and examined the influence of varying levels of piped water access. RESULTS: Nationally, an increase of 1 °C in the temperature across the three prior weeks was associated with a 3.8% higher rate of childhood clinic visits for diarrhea [incidence rate ratio (IRR): 1.04, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03-1.04]. Controlling for temperature, there was a significantly higher incidence rate of childhood diarrhea clinic visits during moderate/strong El Niño events (IRR: 1.03, 95% CI: 1.01-1.04) and during the dry season (IRR: 1.01, 95% CI: 1.00-1.03). Nationally, there was no evidence that the association between temperature and the childhood diarrhea rate changed between the pre- and post-rotavirus vaccine eras, or that higher levels of access to piped water mitigated the effects of temperature on the childhood diarrhea rate. CONCLUSIONS: Higher temperatures and intensifying El Niño events that may result from climate change could increase clinic visits for childhood diarrhea in Peru. Findings underscore the importance of considering climate in assessments of childhood diarrhea in Peru and globally, and can inform regional vulnerability assessments and mitigation planning efforts.

Measuring Environmental Exposure to Enteric Pathogens in Low-Income Settings: Review and Recommendations of an Interdisciplinary Working Group.

Infections with enteric pathogens impose a heavy disease burden, especially among young children in low-income countries. Recent findings from randomized controlled trials of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions have raised questions about current methods for assessing environmental exposure to enteric pathogens. Approaches for estimating sources and doses of exposure suffer from a number of shortcomings, including reliance on imperfect indicators of fecal contamination instead of actual pathogens and estimating exposure indirectly from imprecise measurements of pathogens in the environment and human interaction therewith. These shortcomings limit the potential for effective surveillance of exposures, identification of important sources and modes of transmission, and evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions. In this review, we summarize current and emerging approaches used to characterize enteric pathogen hazards in different environmental media as well as human interaction with those media (external measures of exposure), and review methods that measure human infection with enteric pathogens as a proxy for past exposure (internal measures of exposure). We draw from lessons learned in other areas of environmental health to highlight how external and internal measures of exposure can be used to more comprehensively assess exposure. We conclude by recommending strategies for advancing enteric pathogen exposure assessments.