BMP receptor-activated Smads confer diverse functions during the development of the dorsal spinal cord.

Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) have multiple activities in the developing spinal cord: they specify the identity of the dorsal-most neuronal populations and then direct the trajectories of dorsal interneuron (dI) 1 commissural axons. How are these activities decoded by dorsal neurons to result in different cellular outcomes? Our previous studies have shown that the diverse functions of the BMPs are mediated by the canonical family of BMP receptors and then regulated by specific inhibitory (I) Smads, which block the activity of a complex of Smad second messengers. However, the extent to which this complex translates the different activities of the BMPs in the spinal cord has remained unresolved. Here, we demonstrate that the receptor-activated (R) Smads, Smad1 and Smad5 play distinct roles mediating the abilities of the BMPs to direct cell fate specification and axon outgrowth. Smad1 and Smad5 occupy spatially distinct compartments within the spinal cord, with Smad5 primarily associated with neural progenitors and Smad1 with differentiated neurons. Consistent with this expression profile, loss of function experiments in mouse embryos reveal that Smad5 is required for the acquisition of dorsal spinal neuron identities whereas Smad1 is critical for the regulation of dI1 axon outgrowth. Thus the R-Smads, like the I-Smads, have discrete roles mediating BMP-dependent cellular processes during spinal interneuron development.

Phagocytosis of gelatin-latex particles by a murine macrophage line is dependent on fibronectin and heparin.

It has been suggested that fibronectin plays a role in clearing particles from the circulation by promoting binding to phagocytes of the reticuloendothelial system. By use of a well-defined system to investigate the possible opsonic role of fibronectin, we have studied the uptake of gelatin-coated latex particles by a murine macrophage cell line (P388D1). Fibronectin promotes binding of gelatin-coated beads to these cells in both suspension and monolayer cultures. In both cases there is a requirement for heparin as a cofactor. Other glycosaminoglycans (chondroitin sulfates A and C, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate) were inactive, whereas heparan sulfate was somewhat active. Proof that beads were actually endocytosed was obtained by electron microscopy, which showed beads internalized in membrane-bounded vesicles, and by immunofluorescence analyses, using antibodies to fibronectin to stain external beads. Two rapid assays for the opsonic activity of fibronectin were developed based on differential centrifugation of cell-associated beads and on the immunofluorescence procedure. Binding and endocytosis were time- and temperature-dependent and varied with the amount of gelatin on the beads and with the concentrations of fibronectin and heparin added, and could be inhibited by F(ab')2 antifibronectin. These studies provide a sound basis for a detailed analysis of the interaction of fibronectin with the cell surface and of its involvement in endocytosis.

Insulin resistance and a diabetes mellitus-like syndrome in mice lacking the protein kinase Akt2 (PKB beta).

Glucose homeostasis depends on insulin responsiveness in target tissues, most importantly, muscle and liver. The critical initial steps in insulin action include phosphorylation of scaffolding proteins and activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. These early events lead to activation of the serine-threonine protein kinase Akt, also known as protein kinase B. We show that mice deficient in Akt2 are impaired in the ability of insulin to lower blood glucose because of defects in the action of the hormone on liver and skeletal muscle. These data establish Akt2 as an essential gene in the maintenance of normal glucose homeostasis.

Neuronal expression of chimeric genes in transgenic mice.

Gene expression may occur in unexpected ectopic sites when diverse genetic elements are juxtaposed as chimeric genes in transgenic mice. To determine the specific contribution of the promoter and reporter gene in ectopic expression, we have analyzed the expression of 14 different fusion genes in transgenic mice. Chimeric genes containing the mouse metallothionein-I promoter linked to either the rat or human growth hormone gene or the calcitonin/CGRP gene are expressed in a very similar pattern of neuronal regions. This ectopic expression is not a unique feature of the metallothionein promoter, since transferring the human growth hormone gene to four other heterologous promoters resulted in varying degrees of ectopic expression in overlapping subsets of cortical and hypothalamic neurons. The novel pattern of ectopic expression suggests that these otherwise unrelated neurons share a common developmental regulatory machinery for activation of gene transcription.

Targeted mutagenesis of the POU-domain gene Brn4/Pou3f4 causes developmental defects in the inner ear.

Targeted mutagenesis in mice demonstrates that the POU-domain gene Brn4/Pou3f4 plays a crucial role in the patterning of the mesenchymal compartment of the inner ear. Brn4 is expressed extensively throughout the condensing mesenchyme of the developing inner ear. Mutant animals displayed behavioral anomalies that resulted from functional deficits in both the auditory and vestibular systems, including vertical head bobbing, changes in gait, and hearing loss. Anatomical analyses of the temporal bone, which is derived in part from the otic mesenchyme, demonstrated several dysplastic features in the mutant animals, including enlargement of the internal auditory meatus. Many phenotypic features of the mutant animals resulted from the reduction or thinning of the bony compartment of the inner ear. Histological analyses demonstrated a hypoplasia of those regions of the cochlea derived from otic mesenchyme, including the spiral limbus, the scala tympani, and strial fibrocytes. Interestingly, we observed a reduction in the coiling of the cochlea, which suggests that Brn-4 plays a role in the epithelial-mesenchymal communication necessary for the cochlear anlage to develop correctly. Finally, the stapes demonstrated several malformations, including changes in the size and morphology of its footplate. Because the stapes anlage does not express the Brn4 gene, stapes malformations suggest that the Brn4 gene also plays a role in mesenchymal-mesenchymal signaling. On the basis of these data, we suggest that Brn-4 enhances the survival of mesodermal cells during the mesenchymal remodeling that forms the mature bony labyrinth and regulates inductive signaling mechanisms in the otic mesenchyme.

A tissue-specific enhancer in the rat-calcitonin/CGRP gene is active in both neural and endocrine cell types.

The calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP) gene is a complex transcription unit that is expressed in a highly restricted pattern in both the nervous system, particularly in sensory ganglia and brainstem, and in the thyroid C cells of the endocrine system, with tissue-specific alternative RNA processing events generating transcripts encoding either the hormone, calcitonin, or the neuropeptide, CGRP. This pattern of expression in neural and endocrine tissues raises the question whether similar or distinct genomic elements are responsible for activation in both neural and endocrine cell types. We have identified a complex enhancer element, located more than 1 kilobase 5' of the transcription initiation site of the calcitonin/CGRP gene that functions in cells of neuronal or C cell origin, but not in any other cell type tested. At least two complementary regulatory sequences are required for the function of the cell-specific enhancer.

Regulatory regions from the Brn4 promoter direct LACZ expression to the developing forebrain and neural tube.

To characterize cis-acting regulatory elements of the mouse POU-domain gene, Brain-4/Pou3F4, transgenic mouse pedigrees were generated that contained the LacZ reporter gene under the control of Brn4 5' flanking sequences. A six kilobase promoter region was identified that reproducibly directed expression of the reporter gene to the forebrain and neural tube of developing mouse embryos. Deletional analysis of this promoter region indicates that at least two positive cis-active elements can direct expression to the developing neural tube. These data characterize a transgenic promoter region that will be useful in directing expression to the developing neural tube during the ontogeny of the forebrain.

Changes in the subcellular localization of the Brn4 gene product precede mesenchymal remodeling of the otic capsule.

To better understand the genetic mechanisms that regulate the formation of the temporal bone, we have characterized the developmental expression pattern of the mouse gene, Brn4/Pou3f4, which plays a central role in bony labyrinth formation. Expression of this gene is initially detected in the ventral aspect of the otic capsule at 10.5 days post coitus (dpc), and correlates with the onset of mesenchymal condensation in the otic capsule. As the otic capsule condenses further and surrounds the entire otic vesicle, the Brn4 gene product is detected throughout the inner ear in the mesenchyme of both the cochlear and vestibular aspects. Early in otic embryogenesis, the Brn4 gene product is localized to the nucleus of the vast majority of cells in which it is expressed. The Brn4 gene product remains nuclear in those regions of the otic capsule that eventually give rise to the mature bony labyrinth. However, the subcellular localization of the Brn4 gene product shifts from strictly nuclear to perinuclear in those regions of the otic capsule that will cavitate to form acellular regions in the temporal bone, such as the scala tympani, scala vestibuli, and the internal auditory meatus. These data provide a detailed analysis of the expression pattern of the Brn4 gene, and provide insight into the role of the Brn4 gene product and its regulation during otic capsule formation.

A transgenic insertional inner ear mutation on mouse chromosome 1.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: To clone and characterize the integration site of an insertional inner ear mutation, produced in one of fourteen transgenic mouse lines. The insertion of the transgene led to a mutation in a gene(s) necessary for normal development of the vestibular labyrinth. STUDY DESIGN: Molecular genetic analysis of a transgene integration site. METHODS: Molecular cloning, Southern and northern blotting, DNA sequencing and genetic database searching were the methods employed. RESULTS: The integration of the transgene resulted in a dominantly inherited waltzing phenotype and in degeneration of the pars superior. During development, inner ear fluid homeostasis was disrupted. The integration consisted of the insertion of a single copy of the transgene. Flanking DNA was cloned, and mapping indicated that the genomic DNA on either side of the transgene was not contiguous in the wild-type mouse. Localization of unique markers from the two flanks indicated that both were in the proximal region of mouse chromosome 1. However, in the wild-type mouse the markers were separated by 6.3 cM, indicating a sizable rearrangement. Analysis of the mutant DNA indicated that the entire region between the markers was neither deleted nor simply inverted. CONCLUSIONS: These results are consistent with a complex rearrangement, including at least four breakpoints and spanning at least 6.3 cM, resulting from the integration of the transgene. This genomic rearrangement disrupted the function of one or more genes critical to the maintenance of fluid homeostasis during development and the normal morphogenesis of the pars superior.

Assignment of the gene for acetylcholinesterase to distal mouse chromosome 5.

Characterization of genomic clones encoding mouse acetylcholinesterase enabled us to identify a restriction fragment length polymorphism that distinguishes between the progenitor strains for the recombinant inbred strain sets AKXD and BXD. The strain distribution pattern for this polymorphism indicates that Ache is located on distal mouse chromosome 5.

Wocko, a neurological mutant generated in a transgenic mouse pedigree.

Naturally occurring mutations involving the nervous system have provided virtually all of our current understanding of the genetic regulation of neural development (Caviness and Rakic, 1978). The difficulty of isolating the corresponding genes, however, has precluded a molecular analysis of these mutants. Insertional mutagenesis, induced by microinjection of DNA into fertilized ova to produce transgenic animals, provides a molecular tag that marks the site of the mutational event. In this article, we describe a transgenic neurological mutation, designated wocko (Wo), which disrupts the development of the inner ear. These mutant mice display a dominant behavioral phenotype that consists of circling, hyperactivity, and head tossing, reminiscent of the shaker/waltzer class of mutants, and they display a recessive homozygous sublethal phenotype. Anatomical analyses showed that both structural and neural components of the vestibular system were disrupted, while analyses of mutant fetuses showed that these morphological abnormalities were due to aberrant development. Although low levels of transgene expression were detected using a sensitive PCR assay, several nonmutant pedigrees that contain the same construct also expressed the transgene in the inner ear, suggesting that low levels of transgene expression alone were not responsible for the wocko phenotype. Because the integrated transgene provides a marker to clone the wocko mutation, the analysis of this mutant will give unique insight into the molecular genetics of inner ear development and into a broad class of neurological mutations that affect the inner ear.

BMPR-IA signaling is required for the formation of the apical ectodermal ridge and dorsal-ventral patterning of the limb.

We demonstrate that signaling via the bone morphogenetic protein receptor IA (BMPR-IA) is required to establish two of the three cardinal axes of the limb: the proximal-distal axis and the dorsal-ventral axis. We generated a conditional knockout of the gene encoding BMPR-IA (Bmpr) that disrupted BMP signaling in the limb ectoderm. In the most severely affected embryos, this conditional mutation resulted in gross malformations of the limbs with complete agenesis of the hindlimbs. The proximal-distal axis is specified by the apical ectodermal ridge (AER), which forms from limb ectoderm at the distal tip of the embryonic limb bud. Analyses of the expression of molecular markers, such as Fgf8, demonstrate that formation of the AER was disrupted in the Bmpr mutants. Along the dorsal/ventral axis, loss of engrailed 1 (En1) expression in the non-ridge ectoderm of the mutants resulted in a dorsal transformation of the ventral limb structures. The expression pattern of Bmp4 and Bmp7 suggest that these growth factors play an instructive role in specifying dorsoventral pattern in the limb. This study demonstrates that BMPR-IA signaling plays a crucial role in AER formation and in the establishment of the dorsal/ventral patterning during limb development.

Neuron-specific alternative RNA processing in transgenic mice expressing a metallothionein-calcitonin fusion gene.

Alternative RNA processing of the calcitonin/CGRP gene generates transcripts encoding predominantly calcitonin in thyroid C cells or CGRP in the nervous system. To examine the RNA processing choice of this gene in a wide variety of tissues, we created transgenic mice expressing the rat calcitonin/CGRP transcript from the mouse metallothionein-I promoter. Most cells that do not express the endogenous calcitonin/CGRP gene have the capability to make a clear splicing choice for calcitonin or CGRP transcript. In the majority of tissues studied, 90%-97% of the transgene mRNA encodes calcitonin. In contrast, both calcitonin and CGRP mRNAs were detected in the transgenic mice brains. Immunohistochemical and in situ RNA hybridization analyses show that CGRP transcripts are selectively expressed in a wide variety of neurons, while calcitonin is expressed predominantly in nonneuronal structures. Splicing choice operates independently of calcitonin/CGRP gene transcription. The data suggest that a specific regulatory machinery is required for the processing of CGRP transcripts and is restricted primarily to neurons.

Cell-specific expression of the prolactin gene in transgenic mice is controlled by synergistic interactions between promoter and enhancer elements.

Prolactin gene expression is restricted to the lactotrophic and somatomammotrophic cells of the anterior pituitary. In transgenic mice, a fusion gene consisting of 3 kb of prolactin 5'-flanking region fused to a firefly luciferase or human growth hormone (hGH) reporter gene is expressed at high levels with the strict tissue and cell-type specificity that is characteristic of the endogenous prolactin gene. High levels of expression require two cis-acting regions: a distal enhancer (-1.8 to -1.5 kb) and a proximal region (-422 to +33 bp). Each of these regions alone can direct low levels of fusion gene expression to prolactin-producing cell types in transgenic mice, but a synergistic interaction between these regions is necessary for high levels of expression. The ontogeny of the prolactin transgene expression closely follows the appearance of high levels of a POU homeo-domain transcription factor, Pit-1, that has been shown previously to bind structurally related sequences in both the distal enhancer and proximal regions and to activate the expression of the prolactin gene in vitro. Unexpectedly, transgenes containing the distal enhancer removed from its normal context are expressed in both the prolactin-producing lactotrophs and the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-producing thyrotrophs, thereby suggesting that sequences flanking this enhancer are necessary to restrict expression to the correct cell type within the pituitary. These data indicate that distinct processes of gene activation and restriction are necessary for the fidelity of cell-type-specific expression within an organ.

Dwarf locus mutants lacking three pituitary cell types result from mutations in the POU-domain gene pit-1.

Mutations at the mouse dwarf locus (dw) interrupt the normal development of the anterior pituitary gland, resulting in the loss of expression of growth hormone, prolactin and thyroid-stimulating hormone, and hypoplasia of their respective cell types. Disruptions in the gene encoding the POU-domain transcription factor, Pit-1, occur in both characterized alleles of the dwarf locus. The data indicate that Pit-1 is necessary for the specification of the phenotype of three cell types in the anterior pituitary, and directly link a transcription factor to commitment and progression events in mammalian organogenesis.

Identification of rat growth hormone genomic sequences targeting pituitary expression in transgenic mice.

Constructs containing different segments of the 5' flanking region of the rat growth hormone gene fused to the human growth hormone coding sequences were introduced into fertilized mouse oocytes. As few as 181 base pairs of the rat growth hormone promoter targeted reporter gene expression to the pituitary gland of the resulting transgenic mice. A construct containing only 45 base pairs of the promoter failed to target expression of the reporter to the pituitary, indicating that the pituitary expression is directed by information contained in the segment spanning positions -181 to -45. In the pituitary, immunohistochemistry showed transgene expression mainly in the growth hormone-producing cells (somatotrophs), in a subset of cells producing thyrotropin, and occasionally in prolactin-producing cells. These data establish that cis-active elements contained within the first 180 base pairs of the promoter are sufficient for transcriptional activation of the growth hormone gene in somatotrophs and suggest a functional relationship among growth hormone, prolactin, and thyrotropin gene activation.

Discrete cis-active genomic sequences dictate the pituitary cell type-specific expression of rat prolactin and growth hormone genes.

The anterior pituitary gland, which is derived from a common primordium originating in Rathke's pouch, contains phenotypically distinct cell types, each of which express discrete trophic hormones: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin, growth hormone, and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)/luteinizing hormone (LH). The structurally related prolactin and growth hormone genes, which are evolutionarily derived from a single primordial gene, are expressed in discrete cell types--lactotrophs and somatotrophs, respectively--with their expression virtually limited to the pituitary gland. The pituitary hormones exhibit a temporal pattern of developmental expression with rat growth hormone and prolactin characteristically being the last hormones expressed. The reported co-expression of these two structurally related neuroendocrine genes within single cells prior to the appearance of mature lactotrophs, in a subpopulation of mature anterior pituitary cells, and in many pituitary adenomas raises the possibility that the prolactin and growth hormone genes are developmentally controlled by a common factor(s). We now report the identification and characterization of nucleotide sequences in the 5'-flanking regions of the rat prolactin and growth hormone genes, respectively, which act in a position- and orientation-independent fashion to transfer cell-specific expression to heterologous genes. At least one putative trans-acting factor required for the growth hormone genomic sequence to exert its effects is apparently different from those modulating the corresponding enhancer element(s) of the prolactin gene because a pituitary 'lactotroph' cell line producing prolactin but not growth hormone selectively fails to express fusion genes containing the growth hormone enhancer sequence.

The sex-linked fidget mutation abolishes Brn4/Pou3f4 gene expression in the embryonic inner ear.

We have demonstrated that the phenotype of the mouse mutant sex-linked fidget ( slf ) is caused by developmental malformations of the inner ear that result in hearing loss and vestibular dysfunction. Recently, pilot mapping experiments suggested that the mouse Brn4 / Pou3f4 gene co-segregated with the slf locus on the mouse X chromosome. These mapping data, in conjunction with the observation that the vertical head-shaking phenotype of slf mutants is identical to that observed in mice with a targeted deletion of the Brn4 gene, suggested that slf is a mutant allele of the Brn4 gene. In this paper, we have identified the nature of the slf mutation, and demonstrated that it is an X chromosomal inversion with one breakpoint close to Brn4. This inversion selectively eliminates the expression of the Brn4 gene in the developing inner ear, but not the neural tube. Finally, these results demonstrate that the slf mutation is a good mouse model for the most prevalent form of X-linked congenital deafness in man, which is associated with mutations in the human Brn4 ortholog, POU3F4.