High-throughput phenotyping reveals expansive genetic and structural underpinnings of immune variation.

By developing a high-density murine immunophenotyping platform compatible with high-throughput genetic screening, we have established profound contributions of genetics and structure to immune variation (http://www.immunophenotype.org). Specifically, high-throughput phenotyping of 530 unique mouse gene knockouts identified 140 monogenic 'hits', of which most had no previous immunologic association. Furthermore, hits were collectively enriched in genes for which humans show poor tolerance to loss of function. The immunophenotyping platform also exposed dense correlation networks linking immune parameters with each other and with specific physiologic traits. Such linkages limit freedom of movement for individual immune parameters, thereby imposing genetically regulated 'immunologic structures', the integrity of which was associated with immunocompetence. Hence, we provide an expanded genetic resource and structural perspective for understanding and monitoring immune variation in health and disease.

An essential role for the Zn2+ transporter ZIP7 in B cell development.

Despite the known importance of zinc for human immunity, molecular insights into its roles have remained limited. Here we report a novel autosomal recessive disease characterized by absent B cells, agammaglobulinemia and early onset infections in five unrelated families. The immunodeficiency results from hypomorphic mutations of SLC39A7, which encodes the endoplasmic reticulum-to-cytoplasm zinc transporter ZIP7. Using CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis we have precisely modeled ZIP7 deficiency in mice. Homozygosity for a null allele caused embryonic death, but hypomorphic alleles reproduced the block in B cell development seen in patients. B cells from mutant mice exhibited a diminished concentration of cytoplasmic free zinc, increased phosphatase activity and decreased phosphorylation of signaling molecules downstream of the pre-B cell and B cell receptors. Our findings highlight a specific role for cytosolic Zn2+ in modulating B cell receptor signal strength and positive selection.

Multiscale topology classifies cells in subcellular spatial transcriptomics.

Spatial transcriptomics measures in situ gene expression at millions of locations within a tissue1, hitherto with some trade-off between transcriptome depth, spatial resolution and sample size2. Although integration of image-based segmentation has enabled impactful work in this context, it is limited by imaging quality and tissue heterogeneity. By contrast, recent array-based technologies offer the ability to measure the entire transcriptome at subcellular resolution across large samples3-6. Presently, there exist no approaches for cell type identification that directly leverage this information to annotate individual cells. Here we propose a multiscale approach to automatically classify cell types at this subcellular level, using both transcriptomic information and spatial context. We showcase this on both targeted and whole-transcriptome spatial platforms, improving cell classification and morphology for human kidney tissue and pinpointing individual sparsely distributed renal mouse immune cells without reliance on image data. By integrating these predictions into a topological pipeline based on multiparameter persistent homology7-9, we identify cell spatial relationships characteristic of a mouse model of lupus nephritis, which we validate experimentally by immunofluorescence. The proposed framework readily generalizes to new platforms, providing a comprehensive pipeline bridging different levels of biological organization from genes through to tissues.

Themis2 lowers the threshold for B cell activation during positive selection.

The positive and negative selection of lymphocytes by antigen is central to adaptive immunity and self-tolerance, yet how this is determined by different antigens is not completely understood. We found that thymocyte-selection-associated family member 2 (Themis2) increased the positive selection of B1 cells and germinal center B cells by self and foreign antigens. Themis2 lowered the threshold for B-cell activation by low-avidity, but not high-avidity, antigens. Themis2 constitutively bound the adaptor protein Grb2, src-kinase Lyn and signal transducer phospholipase γ2 (PLC-γ2), and increased activation of PLC-γ2 and its downstream pathways following B cell receptor stimulation. Our findings identify a unique function for Themis2 in differential signaling and provide insight into how B cells discriminate between antigens of different quantity and quality.

Prolidase Deficiency Causes Spontaneous T Cell Activation and Lupus-like Autoimmunity.

Prolidase deficiency (PD) is a multisystem disorder caused by mutations in the PEPD gene, which encodes a ubiquitously expressed metallopeptidase essential for the hydrolysis of dipeptides containing C-terminal proline or hydroxyproline. PD typically presents in childhood with developmental delay, skin ulcers, recurrent infections, and, in some patients, autoimmune features that can mimic systemic lupus erythematosus. The basis for the autoimmune association is uncertain, but might be due to self-antigen exposure with tissue damage, or indirectly driven by chronic infection and microbial burden. In this study, we address the question of causation and show that Pepd-null mice have increased antinuclear autoantibodies and raised serum IgA, accompanied by kidney immune complex deposition, consistent with a systemic lupus erythematosus-like disease. These features are associated with an accumulation of CD4 and CD8 effector T cells in the spleen and liver. Pepd deficiency leads to spontaneous T cell activation and proliferation into the effector subset, which is cell intrinsic and independent of Ag receptor specificity or antigenic stimulation. However, an increase in KLRG1+ effector CD8 cells is not observed in mixed chimeras, in which the autoimmune phenotype is also absent. Our findings link autoimmune susceptibility in PD to spontaneous T cell dysfunction, likely to be acting in combination with immune activators that lie outside the hemopoietic system but result from the abnormal metabolism or loss of nonenzymatic prolidase function. This knowledge provides insight into the role of prolidase in the maintenance of self-tolerance and highlights the importance of treatment to control T cell activation.

An ontogenetic switch drives the positive and negative selection of B cells.

Developing B cells can be positively or negatively selected by self-antigens, but the mechanisms that determine these outcomes are incompletely understood. Here, we show that a B cell intrinsic switch between positive and negative selection during ontogeny is determined by a change from Lin28b to let-7 gene expression. Ectopic expression of a Lin28b transgene in murine B cells restored the positive selection of autoreactive B-1 B cells by self-antigen in adult bone marrow. Analysis of antigen-specific immature B cells in early and late ontogeny identified Lin28b-dependent genes associated with B-1 B cell development, including Arid3a and Bhleh41, and Lin28b-independent effects are associated with the presence or absence of self-antigen. These findings identify cell intrinsic and extrinsic determinants of B cell fate during ontogeny and reconcile lineage and selection theories of B cell development. They explain how changes in the balance of positive and negative selection may be able to adapt to meet the immunological needs of an individual during its lifetime.

Themis is a member of a new metazoan gene family and is required for the completion of thymocyte positive selection.

T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling in CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive thymocytes determines cell survival and lineage commitment, but the genetic and molecular basis of this process is poorly defined. To address this issue, we used ethylnitrosourea mutagenesis to identify a previously unknown T lineage-specific gene, Themis, which is critical for the completion of positive selection. Themis contains a tandem repeat of a unique globular domain (called 'CABIT' here) that includes a cysteine motif that defines a family of five uncharacterized vertebrate proteins with orthologs in most animal species. Themis-deficient thymocytes showed no substantial impairment in early TCR signaling but did show altered expression of genes involved in the cell cycle and survival before and during positive selection. Our data suggest a unique function for Themis in sustaining positive selection.

Dock8 mutations cripple B cell immunological synapses, germinal centers and long-lived antibody production.

To identify genes and mechanisms involved in humoral immunity, we did a mouse genetic screen for mutations that do not affect the first wave of antibody to immunization but disrupt response maturation and persistence. The first two mutants identified had loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding a previously obscure member of a family of Rho-Rac GTP-exchange factors, DOCK8. DOCK8-mutant B cells were unable to form marginal zone B cells or to persist in germinal centers and undergo affinity maturation. Dock8 mutations disrupted accumulation of the integrin ligand ICAM-1 in the B cell immunological synapse but did not alter other aspects of B cell antigen receptor signaling. Humoral immunodeficiency due to Dock8 mutation provides evidence that organization of the immunological synapse is critical for signaling the survival of B cell subsets required for long-lasting immunity.

Mutation of Fnip1 is associated with B-cell deficiency, cardiomyopathy, and elevated AMPK activity.

Folliculin (FLCN) is a tumor-suppressor protein mutated in the Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome, which associates with two paralogous proteins, folliculin-interacting protein (FNIP)1 and FNIP2, forming a complex that interacts with the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Although it is clear that this complex influences AMPK and other metabolic regulators, reports of its effects have been inconsistent. To address this issue, we created a recessive loss-of-function variant of Fnip1 Homozygous FNIP1 deficiency resulted in profound B-cell deficiency, partially restored by overexpression of the antiapoptotic protein BCL2, whereas heterozygous deficiency caused a loss of marginal zone B cells. FNIP1-deficient mice developed cardiomyopathy characterized by left ventricular hypertrophy and glycogen accumulation, with close parallels to mice and humans bearing gain-of-function mutations in the γ2 subunit of AMPK. Concordantly, γ2-specific AMPK activity was elevated in neonatal FNIP1-deficient myocardium, whereas AMPK-dependent unc-51-like autophagy activating kinase 1 (ULK1) phosphorylation and autophagy were increased in FNIP1-deficient B-cell progenitors. These data support a role for FNIP1 as a negative regulator of AMPK.

Unlocking the bottleneck in forward genetics using whole-genome sequencing and identity by descent to isolate causative mutations.

Forward genetics screens with N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) provide a powerful way to illuminate gene function and generate mouse models of human disease; however, the identification of causative mutations remains a limiting step. Current strategies depend on conventional mapping, so the propagation of affected mice requires non-lethal screens; accurate tracking of phenotypes through pedigrees is complex and uncertain; out-crossing can introduce unexpected modifiers; and Sanger sequencing of candidate genes is inefficient. Here we show how these problems can be efficiently overcome using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to detect the ENU mutations and then identify regions that are identical by descent (IBD) in multiple affected mice. In this strategy, we use a modification of the Lander-Green algorithm to isolate causative recessive and dominant mutations, even at low coverage, on a pure strain background. Analysis of the IBD regions also allows us to calculate the ENU mutation rate (1.54 mutations per Mb) and to model future strategies for genetic screens in mice. The introduction of this approach will accelerate the discovery of causal variants, permit broader and more informative lethal screens to be used, reduce animal costs, and herald a new era for ENU mutagenesis.

DOCK8 is critical for the survival and function of NKT cells.

Patients with the dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8) immunodeficiency syndrome suffer from recurrent viral and bacterial infections, hyper-immunoglobulin E levels, eczema, and greater susceptibility to cancer. Because natural killer T (NKT) cells have been implicated in these diseases, we asked if these cells were affected by DOCK8 deficiency. Using a mouse model, we found that DOCK8 deficiency resulted in impaired NKT cell development, principally affecting the formation and survival of long-lived, differentiated NKT cells. In the thymus, DOCK8-deficient mice lack a terminally differentiated subset of NK1.1(+) NKT cells expressing the integrin CD103, whereas in the liver, DOCK8-deficient NKT cells express reduced levels of the prosurvival factor B-cell lymphoma 2 and the integrin lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1. Although the initial NKT cell response to antigen is intact in the absence of DOCK8, their ongoing proliferative and cytokine responses are impaired. Importantly, a similar defect in NKT cell numbers was detected in DOCK8-deficient humans, highlighting the relevance of the mouse model. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that DOCK8 is required for the development and survival of mature NKT cells, consistent with the idea that DOCK8 mediates survival signals within a specialized niche. Accordingly, impaired NKT cell numbers and function are likely to contribute to the susceptibility of DOCK8-deficient patients to recurrent infections and malignant disease.

Next-generation sequencing to dissect hereditary nephrotic syndrome in mice identifies a hypomorphic mutation in Lamb2 and models Pierson's syndrome.

The study of mutations causing the steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome in children has greatly advanced our understanding of the kidney filtration barrier. In particular, these genetic variants have illuminated the roles of the podocyte, glomerular basement membrane and endothelial cell in glomerular filtration. However, in a significant number of familial and early onset cases, an underlying mutation cannot be identified, indicating that there are likely to be multiple unknown genes with roles in glomerular permeability. We now show how the combination of N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis and next-generation sequencing could be used to identify the range of mutations affecting these pathways. Using this approach, we isolated a novel mouse strain with a viable nephrotic phenotype and used whole-genome sequencing to isolate a causative hypomorphic mutation in Lamb2. This discovery generated a model for one part of the spectrum of human Pierson's syndrome and provides a powerful proof of principle for accelerating gene discovery and improving our understanding of inherited forms of renal disease.

DNA repair is limiting for haematopoietic stem cells during ageing.

Accumulation of DNA damage leading to adult stem cell exhaustion has been proposed to be a principal mechanism of ageing. Here we address this question by taking advantage of the highly specific role of DNA ligase IV in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks by non-homologous end-joining, and by the discovery of a unique mouse strain with a hypomorphic Lig4(Y288C) mutation. The Lig4(Y288C) mouse, identified by means of a mutagenesis screening programme, is a mouse model for human LIG4 syndrome, showing immunodeficiency and growth retardation. Diminished DNA double-strand break repair in the Lig4(Y288C) strain causes a progressive loss of haematopoietic stem cells and bone marrow cellularity during ageing, and severely impairs stem cell function in tissue culture and transplantation. The sensitivity of haematopoietic stem cells to non-homologous end-joining deficiency is therefore a key determinant of their ability to maintain themselves against physiological stress over time and to withstand culture and transplantation.

DOCK8 is essential for T-cell survival and the maintenance of CD8+ T-cell memory.

Deficiency in the guanine nucleotide exchange factor dedicator of cytokinesis 8 (DOCK8) causes a human immunodeficiency syndrome associated with recurrent sinopulmonary and viral infections. We have recently identified a DOCK8-deficient mouse strain, carrying an ethylnitrosourea-induced splice-site mutation that shows a failure to mature a humoral immune response due to the loss of germinal centre B cells. In this study, we turned to T-cell immunity to investigate further the human immunodeficiency syndrome and its association with decreased peripheral CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Characterisation of the DOCK8-deficient mouse revealed T-cell lymphopenia, with increased T-cell turnover and decreased survival. Egress of mature CD4(+) thymocytes was reduced with increased migration of these cells to the chemokine CXCL12. However, despite the two-fold reduction in peripheral naïve T cells, the DOCK8-deficient mice generated a normal primary CD8(+) immune response and were able to survive acute influenza virus infection. The limiting effect of DOCK8 was in the normal survival of CD8(+) memory T cells after infection. These findings help to explain why DOCK8-deficient patients are susceptible to recurrent infections and provide new insights into how T-cell memory is sustained.

NDRG1 is induced by antigen-receptor signaling but dispensable for B and T cell self-tolerance.

Peripheral tolerance prevents the initiation of damaging immune responses by autoreactive lymphocytes. While tolerogenic mechanisms are tightly regulated by antigen-dependent and independent signals, downstream pathways are incompletely understood. N-myc downstream-regulated gene 1 (NDRG1), an anti-cancer therapeutic target, has previously been implicated as a CD4+ T cell clonal anergy factor. By RNA-sequencing, we identified Ndrg1 as the third most upregulated gene in anergic, compared to naïve follicular, B cells. Ndrg1 is upregulated by B cell receptor activation (signal one) and suppressed by co-stimulation (signal two), suggesting that NDRG1 may be important in B cell tolerance. However, though Ndrg1-/- mice have a neurological defect mimicking NDRG1-associated Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT4d) disease, primary and secondary immune responses were normal. We find that B cell tolerance is maintained, and NDRG1 does not play a role in downstream responses during re-stimulation of in vivo antigen-experienced CD4+ T cells, demonstrating that NDGR1 is functionally redundant for lymphocyte anergy.

Identification of a Steap3 endosomal targeting motif essential for normal iron metabolism.

Hereditary forms of iron-deficiency anemia, including animal models, have taught us much about the normal physiologic control of iron metabolism. However, the discovery of new informative mutants is limited by the natural mutation frequency. To address this limitation, we have developed a screen for heritable abnormalities of red blood cell morphology in mice with single-nucleotide changes induced by the chemical mutagen ethylnitrosourea (ENU). We now describe the first strain, fragile-red, with hypochromic microcytic anemia resulting from a Y228H substitution in the ferrireductase Steap3 (Steap3(Y288H)). Analysis of the Steap3(Y288H) mutant identifies a conserved motif required for targeting Steap3 to internal compartments and highlights how phenotypic screens linked to mutagenesis can identify new functional variants in erythropoiesis and ascribe function to previously unidentified motifs.

Natural HLA class I polymorphism controls the pathway of antigen presentation and susceptibility to viral evasion.

HLA class I polymorphism creates diversity in epitope specificity and T cell repertoire. We show that HLA polymorphism also controls the choice of Ag presentation pathway. A single amino acid polymorphism that distinguishes HLA-B*4402 (Asp116) from B*4405 (Tyr116) permits B*4405 to constitutively acquire peptides without any detectable incorporation into the transporter associated with Ag presentation (TAP)-associated peptide loading complex even under conditions of extreme peptide starvation. This mode of peptide capture is less susceptible to viral interference than the conventional loading pathway used by HLA-B*4402 that involves assembly of class I molecules within the peptide loading complex. Thus, B*4402 and B*4405 are at opposite extremes of a natural spectrum in HLA class I dependence on the PLC for Ag presentation. These findings unveil a new layer of MHC polymorphism that affects the generic pathway of Ag loading, revealing an unsuspected evolutionary trade-off in selection for optimal HLA class I loading versus effective pathogen evasion.

Systemic silencing of PHD2 causes reversible immune regulatory dysfunction.

Physiological effects of cellular hypoxia are sensed by prolyl hydroxylase (PHD) enzymes which regulate HIFs. Genetic interventions on HIF/PHD pathways reveal multiple phenotypes that extend the known biology of hypoxia. Recent studies unexpectedly implicate HIF in aspects of multiple immune and inflammatory pathways. However such studies are often limited by systemic lethal effects and/or use tissue-specific recombination systems, which are inherently irreversible, un-physiologically restricted and difficult to time. To study these processes better we developed recombinant mice which express tetracycline-regulated shRNAs broadly targeting the main components of the HIF/PHD pathway, permitting timed bi-directional intervention. We have shown that stabilization of HIF levels in adult mice through PHD2 enzyme silencing by RNA interference, or inducible recombination of floxed alleles, results in multi-lineage leukocytosis and features of autoimmunity. This phenotype was rapidly normalized on re-establishment of the hypoxia-sensing machinery when shRNA expression was discontinued. In both situations these effects were mediated principally through the Hif2a isoform. Assessment of cells bearing regulatory T cell markers from these mice revealed defective function and pro-inflammatory effects in vivo. We believe our findings have shown a new role for the PHD2/Hif2a couple in the reversible regulation of T cell and immune activity.

Aberrant mucin assembly in mice causes endoplasmic reticulum stress and spontaneous inflammation resembling ulcerative colitis.

BACKGROUND: MUC2 mucin produced by intestinal goblet cells is the major component of the intestinal mucus barrier. The inflammatory bowel disease ulcerative colitis is characterized by depleted goblet cells and a reduced mucus layer, but the aetiology remains obscure. In this study we used random mutagenesis to produce two murine models of inflammatory bowel disease, characterised the basis and nature of the inflammation in these mice, and compared the pathology with human ulcerative colitis. METHODS AND FINDINGS: By murine N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis we identified two distinct noncomplementing missense mutations in Muc2 causing an ulcerative colitis-like phenotype. 100% of mice of both strains developed mild spontaneous distal intestinal inflammation by 6 wk (histological colitis scores versus wild-type mice, p < 0.01) and chronic diarrhoea. Monitoring over 300 mice of each strain demonstrated that 25% and 40% of each strain, respectively, developed severe clinical signs of colitis by age 1 y. Mutant mice showed aberrant Muc2 biosynthesis, less stored mucin in goblet cells, a diminished mucus barrier, and increased susceptibility to colitis induced by a luminal toxin. Enhanced local production of IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma was seen in the distal colon, and intestinal permeability increased 2-fold. The number of leukocytes within mesenteric lymph nodes increased 5-fold and leukocytes cultured in vitro produced more Th1 and Th2 cytokines (IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-13). This pathology was accompanied by accumulation of the Muc2 precursor and ultrastructural and biochemical evidence of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in goblet cells, activation of the unfolded protein response, and altered intestinal expression of genes involved in ER stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and wound repair. Expression of mutated Muc2 oligomerisation domains in vitro demonstrated that aberrant Muc2 oligomerisation underlies the ER stress. In human ulcerative colitis we demonstrate similar accumulation of nonglycosylated MUC2 precursor in goblet cells together with ultrastructural and biochemical evidence of ER stress even in noninflamed intestinal tissue. Although our study demonstrates that mucin misfolding and ER stress initiate colitis in mice, it does not ascertain the genetic or environmental drivers of ER stress in human colitis. CONCLUSIONS: Characterisation of the mouse models we created and comparison with human disease suggest that ER stress-related mucin depletion could be a fundamental component of the pathogenesis of human colitis and that clinical studies combining genetics, ER stress-related pathology and relevant environmental epidemiology are warranted.

Impaired lymphocyte development and antibody class switching and increased malignancy in a murine model of DNA ligase IV syndrome.

Hypomorphic mutations in DNA ligase IV (LIG4) cause a human syndrome of immunodeficiency, radiosensitivity, and growth retardation due to defective DNA repair by the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway. Lig4-null mice are embryonic lethal, and better mouse models are needed to study human LigIV syndrome. We recently identified a viable mouse strain with a Y288C hypomorphic mutation in the Lig4 gene. Lig4Y288C mice exhibit a greater than 10-fold reduction of LigIV activity in vivo and recapitulate the immunodeficiency and growth retardation seen in human patients. Here, we have demonstrated that the Lig4Y288C mutation leads to multiple defects in lymphocyte development and function, including impaired V(D)J recombination, peripheral lymphocyte survival and proliferation, and B cell class switch recombination. We also highlight a high incidence of thymic tumors in the Lig4Y288C mice, suggesting that wild-type LigIV protects against malignant transformation. These findings provide explanations for the complex lymphoid phenotype of human LigIV syndrome.