Is Receiving Social Support Costly for Those Higher in Subjective Socioeconomic Status?

BACKGROUND: Although social support is generally thought to have positive consequences, this is not always the case. Receiving social support may threaten independence, which research has shown is more highly valued among those higher in socioeconomic status. As a result, support may be less strongly associated with positive outcomes for those higher in socioeconomic status (SES). Conversely, those lower in SES are more interdependent (Kraus, Piff, Mendoza-Denton, Rheinschmidt, & Keltner, 2012; Stephens, Markus, & Phillips, 2014) and may, therefore, be less threatened when receiving social support. This study examined SES as a moderator of how daily received support (within and between persons) predicted both daily psychological stressor appraisals and diurnal cortisol. METHOD: Healthy undergraduate students (N = 128) participated in a 3-day study. Participants completed one or more evening diaries the first day of the study and additional questionnaires upon awakening, throughout the day, and at bedtime during the following 2 days. Support was measured each evening and stressor appraisals and cortisol were measured throughout the day. RESULTS: As expected, for those who reported higher subjective SES, receiving more support than usual (within-person support) was associated with a flatter pattern of diurnal cortisol the next day. Although SES did not moderate the association of either within- or between-person support with stressor appraisals, the receipt of more support on average (between-person support) was associated with higher reported resources to cope. CONCLUSION: The findings demonstrate that there may be physiological costs-but not psychological costs-associated with the receipt of support for those higher in socioeconomic status.

Education Is Associated with the Magnitude of Cortisol Responses to Psychosocial Stress in College Students.

PURPOSE: Researchers benefit from controlling for individual differences that systematically account for variance in acute cortisol responses (e.g., sex). Similarly, some suggest that education could be used as a cortisol covariate because prior work found a negative relationship between education and the magnitude of acute cortisol responses in middle-aged adults. Nevertheless, education is seldom controlled for in tests of cortisol responses to acute stress, in part because the effect of education on acute cortisol responses has yet to be tested in a college sample. The present study therefore tested the relationship between education and cortisol responses to acute stress in college students. METHOD: Participants (124 healthy undergraduate students) self-reported education level and were subjected to a stressful speech task. Salivary cortisol was collected 0, + 15, + 25, + 40, and + 55 min post-stressor onset. Participant also completed a battery of questionnaires assessing individual differences, day-to-day demands, and stress-related appraisals. RESULTS: Students in their fourth year of college education or above had significantly less curvilinear responses to the stress task relative to first-, second-, and third-year students. CONCLUSION: The effect of education on cortisol responses previously found in middle-aged adults was replicated in college students. Future research may therefore benefit from controlling for education when analyzing acute cortisol responses in college samples.

The role of social-evaluative threat for cortisol profiles in response to psychosocial stress: A person-centered approach.

Heterogeneity in individuals' physiological stress responses is central to theories linking stress with vulnerability to disease. Although multiple cortisol profiles have been reported in response to acute psychological stress, most prior work focuses on a single, average pattern and relative deviations from it, such as greater or lesser response peaks or reactivity. The present aims were to identify cortisol stress response trajectory classes using a data-driven approach and test whether social-evaluative threat (SET), a reliable elicitor of cortisol, predicted a greater likelihood of membership in the more reactive profiles. Data were pooled from 13 acute laboratory stressor studies from two geographically distinct U.S. university communities. Participants included 1,258 adults ranging from 18 to 52 years (Mage = 20.5; 62% women; 38% men) with diverse racial/ethnic identities and socioeconomic statuses. Studies included a version of the Trier Social Stress Test and at least three salivary cortisol assessments. SET was tested in three ways: study conditions with evaluators present, perceptions of evaluation, and ratings of shame-related emotions. Latent group-based trajectory modeling was applied to identify cortisol response patterns that best fit the data. Results revealed five unique cortisol response profiles. Consistent with hypotheses, SET conditions, greater perceived evaluation, and greater shame-related emotions predicted membership in the most reactive response trajectories. The findings highlight the high degree of heterogeneity that characterizes cortisol stress response profiles, which has important implications for theories of stress and health and methodological approaches in future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-administered mindfulness interventions reduce stress in a large, randomized controlled multi-site study.

Mindfulness witnessed a substantial popularity surge in the past decade, especially as digitally self-administered interventions became available at relatively low costs. Yet, it is uncertain whether they effectively help reduce stress. In a preregistered (OSF https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/UF4JZ ; retrospective registration at ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06308744 ) multi-site study (nsites = 37, nparticipants = 2,239, 70.4% women, Mage = 22.4, s.d.age = 10.1, all fluent English speakers), we experimentally tested whether four single, standalone mindfulness exercises effectively reduced stress, using Bayesian mixed-effects models. All exercises proved to be more efficacious than the active control. We observed a mean difference of 0.27 (d = -0.56; 95% confidence interval, -0.43 to -0.69) between the control condition (M = 1.95, s.d. = 0.50) and the condition with the largest stress reduction (body scan: M = 1.68, s.d. = 0.46). Our findings suggest that mindfulness may be beneficial for reducing self-reported short-term stress for English speakers from higher-income countries.

COVID-19 pandemic-related stressors and posttraumatic stress: The main, moderating, indirect, and mediating effects of social support.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created a variety of stressors, some of which have been linked to intense stress reactions, such as posttraumatic stress (PTS)-like symptoms. However, we have limited knowledge on cumulative effects of pandemic-related stressors on PTS or on variables that may mitigate the effects of these stressors. We aimed to address some of these knowledge gaps by testing three models to examine the interrelationships among pandemic-related stressors, perceived social support, coping flexibility, and pandemic-related PTS. The sample of this cross-sectional correlational study is comprised of 2291 adults from the United States who completed an online survey between 22 May 2020 and 15 July 2020. Results indicated that greater exposure to secondary stressors, but not COVID-19-related stressors, was associated with increased PTS. After controlling for COVID-19-related and secondary stressors, social support had negative direct and indirect (via coping flexibility) effects on PTS. In addition, social support mediated the effects of COVID-19-related and secondary stressors on PTS. Our findings highlight the complexity of the role of social support in relation to pandemic-related stressors and PTS, and suggest that early interventions that target social support and coping flexibility may help reduce pandemic-related PTS.

Environmental resources moderate the relationship between social support and school sports participation among adolescents: a cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Most Americans are not active at recommended levels. Adolescence is a developmental period when physical activity (PA) decreases markedly. METHODS: This study investigates whether access to environmental PA resources moderates the relationship between psychosocial resources (social support and perceived competence) and PA among 192 adolescents. RESULTS: Environmental access to PA resources (determined via GIS-based assessment of the number of gyms, schools, trails, parks and athletic fields within 0.5 miles of each participant's home) moderated the association between social support and PA; among adolescents with high levels of environmental resources, greater social support was associated with students participating in a greater number of sports in school, whereas no such relationship emerged among adolescents with low environmental resources. CONCLUSIONS: PA-promotion interventions should aim to enhance both social and environmental resources; targeting either one alone may be insufficient.

Rumination predicts longer sleep onset latency after an acute psychosocial stressor.

OBJECTIVES: Rumination has been linked to self-reported sleep quality. However, whether rumination is related to an objective sleep parameter has not been tested. This study examined whether rumination predicts sleep onset latency (SOL) on the night after an acute psychosocial stressor. We hypothesized that those who ruminate (assessed with both trait and stressor-specific measures) would have longer SOL (assessed with objective and subjective methods). METHODS: Seventy participants delivered a 5-minute speech in front of an evaluative panel during an afternoon laboratory session. Trait rumination was assessed before the stressor. Stressor-specific rumination was captured with the frequency of task-related thoughts participants experienced during a 10-minute rest period after the stressor. Participants wore actigraphs on their wrists on the night after the laboratory session to measure objective sleep onset latency (SOL-O). Subjective sleep onset latency was estimated by participants on the subsequent morning. RESULTS: Consistent with hypotheses, trait and stressor-specific rumination predicted longer SOL-O and subjective sleep onset latency, respectively. In addition, trait and stressor-specific rumination interacted to predict longer SOL-O. SOL-O was longest among those who engaged in more stressor-specific rumination and had greater trait rumination scores. Neither rumination measure was related to sleep duration or wakefulness after sleep onset. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study are consistent with previous research linking rumination to subjective sleep quality. The results also suggest that post-stressor ruminative thought may predict delayed sleep onset for those with a propensity for rumination.

Social-evaluative threat and proinflammatory cytokine regulation: an experimental laboratory investigation.

This study experimentally tested whether a stressor characterized by social-evaluative threat (SET), a context in which the self can be judged negatively by others, would elicit increases in proinflammatory cytokine activity and alter the regulation of this response. This hypothesis was derived in part from research on immunological responses to social threat in nonhuman animals. Healthy female participants were assigned to perform a speech and a math task in the presence or absence of an evaluative audience (SET or non-SET, respectively). As hypothesized, stimulated production of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) increased from baseline to poststressor in the SET condition, but was unchanged in the non-SET condition. Further, the increases in TNF-alpha production correlated with participants' cognitive appraisals of being evaluated. Additionally, the ability of glucocorticoids to shut down the inflammatory response was decreased in the SET condition. These findings underscore the importance of social evaluation as a threat capable of eliciting proinflammatory cytokine activity and altering its regulation.

Rumination and cortisol responses to laboratory stressors.

OBJECTIVE: For some, a stressor's psychological and physiological influence ceases on removal; for others, the effects may persist through rumination. These repetitive, intrusive thoughts might prolong physiological stress responses. Previous studies produced mixed results, indicating a need to clarify the relationship between rumination and cortisol responses. The current study investigated whether a laboratory speech task is sufficient to elicit rumination and whether those who ruminated in response to the speech task have elevated cortis of responses. Additionally, whether trait depressive rumination follows a similar pattern was examined. It was hypothesized that those delivering speeches in a social-evaluative context would experience more posttask rumination and that greater posttask rumination would predict elevated cortisol responses. METHODS: Eighty-nine participants performed a speech in front of an evaluative panel (SET) or in one of two nonexplicitly evaluative conditions. Participants indicated the frequency of the thoughts they experienced during a 10-minute rest period after the speech as a measure of posttask rumination. Salivary cortisol was collected at five time points throughout the session. RESULTS: The SET condition elicited more posttask rumination than the nonexplicitly evaluative conditions. Posttask rumination was associated with amplified and prolonged elevations in cortisol across all conditions. Trait depressive rumination was associated with blunted cortisol responses in the SET condition. There was no association between trait depressive rumination and cortisol responses in the nonexplicitly evaluative conditions. CONCLUSION: Results suggest that the nature of the relationship between cortisol activation and rumination may be contingent on how rumination is conceptualized and measured.

Negative social evaluation, but not mere social presence, elicits cortisol responses to a laboratory stressor task.

BACKGROUND: Recent research has supported the premise that performance conditions characterized by social-evaluative threat, in which an aspect of the self could be judged by others, are associated with cortisol responses. However, it remains unclear whether this effect is due to negative social evaluation per se or simply the presence of another during a performance situation. METHOD: In the present study, 89 undergraduates delivered a speech in 1 of 3 conditions: in front of an evaluative audience panel (social-evaluative threat [SET]), in the presence of an inattentive confederate (PRES), or alone in a room (non-SET). RESULTS: Consistent with hypotheses, participants in the SET condition demonstrated a significant cortisol response, while those in the non-SET and PRES conditions did not show increases in this hormone. Further, participants in the SET condition who reported greater posttask levels of self-conscious cognitions and emotions demonstrated the greatest increases in cortisol. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that the mere social presence of others is not driving the changes in cortisol observed under social-evaluative threat; instead, explicit negative social evaluation may be responsible for increases in this health-relevant physiological parameter.

Trait mindfulness predicts the presence but not the magnitude of cortisol responses to acute stress.

BACKGROUND: Mindfulness, or the practice of observing present moment experiences with acceptance, is thought to improve health at least partially by limiting hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis over-responsiveness during episodes of acute stress. However, models of allostatic load suggest that HPA axis under-responsiveness can also be detrimental to health, and the relationship between mindfulness and cortisol under-responsiveness has yet to be examined. The present study therefore aimed to address this knowledge gap, and to revisit the relationship between mindfulness and acute cortisol response magnitude while excluding (or statistically controlling for) individuals displaying HPA axis under-responsiveness. METHODS: Participants (124 healthy undergraduate students) were subjected to a stressful speech task, and completed a trait mindfulness questionnaire. Salivary cortisol was collected 0, +15, +25, +40, and +55 min post-stressor onset. RESULTS: Greater trait mindfulness was associated with greater odds of displaying a cortisol response relative to none, but was unrelated to the magnitude of cortisol responses among those who displayed an acute response. CONCLUSIONS: In the present sample, trait mindfulness was associated with cortisol responses, but this was driven by the fact that subjects low in mindfulness were more likely to be non-responders. Contrasting the effects of mindfulness on the presence (i.e., present vs. absent) and the degree (i.e., magnitude) of acute stress responses may therefore be warranted in future research.

Social-evaluative threat, cognitive load, and the cortisol and cardiovascular stress response.

BACKGROUND: Current evidence suggests that exposure to social-evaluative threat (SET) can elicit a physiological stress response, especially cortisol, which is an important regulatory hormone. However, an alternative explanation of these findings is that social-evaluative laboratory tasks are more difficult, or confer greater cognitive load, than non-evaluative tasks. Thus, the current experiment tested whether social-evaluative threat, rather than cognitive load, is truly an "active ingredient" in eliciting a cortisol response to stressors. METHODS: Healthy undergraduate students (N = 142, 65% female) were randomly assigned to one of four speech-stressor conditions in a fully-crossed two (social-evaluative threat [SET] manipulation: non-SET versus SET) by two (cognitive load manipulation: low versus high) stressor manipulation. Social-evaluative threat was manipulated by the presence (SET) or absence (non-SET) of two evaluators, while cognitive load was manipulated by the presence (LOAD) or absence (non-LOAD) of a tone-counting task during the speech stressor. Salivary cortisol and cardiovascular measures were taken before, during, and after the speech stressor. RESULTS: Compared to the non-SET condition, SET condition led to greater cortisol and cardiovascular responses to the speech stressor. There were no main or additive effects of cognitive load on cortisol and cardiovascular responses to the speech stressor. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that social-evaluative threat is a central aspect of stressors that elicits a cortisol response; however we found no evidence that increased difficulty, or cognitive load, contributed to greater cardiovascular or cortisol responses to stressors.

Is spending money on others good for your heart?

OBJECTIVE: Does spending money on others (prosocial spending) improve the cardiovascular health of community-dwelling older adults diagnosed with high blood pressure? METHOD: In Study 1, 186 older adults diagnosed with high blood pressure participating in the Midlife in the U.S. Study (MIDUS) were examined. In Study 2, 73 older adults diagnosed with high blood pressure were assigned to spend money on others or to spend money on themselves. RESULTS: In Study 1, the more money people spent on others, the lower their blood pressure was 2 years later. In Study 2, participants who were assigned to spend money on others for 3 consecutive weeks subsequently exhibited lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure compared to participants assigned to spend money on themselves. The magnitude of these effects was comparable to the effects of interventions such as antihypertensive medication or exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these findings suggest that spending money on others shapes cardiovascular health, thereby providing a pathway by which prosocial behavior improves physical health among at-risk older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record

Diurnal cortisol rhythm and fatigue in breast cancer survivors.

Approximately 30% of breast cancer survivors report persistent fatigue of unknown origin. We have previously shown that cancer-related fatigue is associated with alterations in immunological parameters and serum cortisol levels in breast cancer survivors. The current study examined the diurnal rhythm of salivary cortisol in fatigued and non-fatigued breast cancer survivors. Salivary cortisol measures were obtained from breast cancer survivors with persistent fatigue (n=13) and a control group of non-fatigued survivors (n=16). Participants collected saliva samples upon awakening and at 1200, 1700, and 2200 h on two consecutive days. Diurnal cortisol slope for each day was determined by linear regression of log-transformed cortisol values on collection time and analyzed using multi-level modeling. Fatigued breast cancer survivors had a significantly flatter cortisol slope than non-fatigued survivors, with a less rapid decline in cortisol levels in the evening hours. At the individual patient level, survivors who reported the highest levels of fatigue also had the flattest cortisol slopes. Group differences remained significant in analyses controlling for demographic and medical factors, daily health behaviors, and other potential confounds (e.g. depressed mood, body mass index). Results suggest a subtle dysregulation in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning in breast cancer survivors with persistent fatigue.

Extending the recovery window: Effects of trait rumination on subsequent evening cortisol following a laboratory performance stressor.

Mental rehearsal of past stressors through rumination may extend the physiological stress response and exposure to stress-related physiological mediators, such as cortisol. If repeated over time, this prolonged activation may contribute to a number of chronic health conditions. Findings from the emerging literature on the tendency to ruminate and its association with cortisol have been somewhat mixed. In the present study, we tested whether trait rumination predicted elevated cortisol concentrations in response to a performance stressor, and whether this association varied by the social-evaluative context of the stressor and gender. We also examined whether associations persisted into the evening of the stressor. Participants (50% female; mean age=19.83, SD=1.62) were randomly assigned to complete a laboratory speech stressor either in a social-evaluative (SET; n=86) or non-evaluative context (non-SET; n=58). Salivary cortisol concentrations were measured throughout the laboratory visit and later that evening. There was a main effect of trait rumination on greater total cortisol exposure into the evening of the stressor. In addition, trait rumination interacted with stressor context to predict cortisol declines: on the night of the SET stressor, high trait ruminators did not exhibit typical declines in cortisol. Different cortisol patterns emerged for men and women with tendencies to ruminate: women with higher rumination scores had flatter cortisol slopes with greater evening cortisol, whereas men with higher trait rumination scores had greater initial cortisol reactivity to the stressor. Together, these findings suggest that the relationship between the tendency to ruminate and cortisol concentrations is qualified by individual differences (gender) and stressor characteristics (social-evaluative threat).

Understanding the utility of emotional approach coping: evidence from a laboratory stressor and daily life.

BACKGROUND: Dispositional emotional approach coping (EAC) marks an adaptive tendency to process and express emotions. EAC's association with cognitions, affect, and intra- and interindividual characteristics that may account for its utility was examined in response to an acute stressor and in daily life. DESIGN: This study included a laboratory stress task and ecological momentary assessment. METHODS: Healthy undergraduate students (n = 124; mean age: 20; women: 56%) completed a laboratory component (baseline survey, speech stress task, pre- and posttask measures) and five subsequent days of surveys via palm pilot (six surveys/day). RESULTS: Controlling for sex, neuroticism, and social support, greater EAC was associated with more positive cognitive appraisals, personal resources, and positive affect and less-negative affect during the lab stressor, and with more perceived control and positive affect in daily life. Significant EAC × sex interactions were found for poststressor affect: men with high EAC reported more positive affect and women with high EAC reported less negative affect. CONCLUSIONS: Findings provide support that EAC's utility may be independent of intra- and interindividual characteristics, and that men and women may benefit from EAC in different ways in regards to affect. The proclivity to use EAC may come with a resiliency that protects against stress and promotes general well-being.

Finding the middle ground: Curvilinear associations between positive affect variability and daily cortisol profiles.

There is growing evidence that there are stable and meaningful individual differences in how much people vary in their experience of positive affect (PA), which in turn may have implications for health and well-being. Does such PA variability play a role in physiological processes potentially related to stress and health, such as daily cortisol profiles? We explored this question by examining whether PA variability across and within days in middle-aged adults (Study 1) and across weeks in older adults (Study 2) was associated with daily salivary cortisol profiles. In both studies, individuals who exhibited moderate PA variability demonstrated more favorable cortisol profiles, such as lower levels of cortisol and steeper slopes. Interestingly, for middle-aged adults (Study 1), high levels of within-day PA variability were associated with the least favorable cortisol profiles, whereas for older adults (Study 2), low levels of across-week PA variability were associated with the least favorable cortisol profiles. Collectively, these findings provide some of the first evidence that PA variability is related to daily cortisol profiles, suggesting that it may be better to experience a moderate degree of positive affect variability. Too much or too little variability, however, may be problematic, potentially carrying negative implications for stress-related physiological responding.

Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research.

This meta-analysis reviews 208 laboratory studies of acute psychological stressors and tests a theoretical model delineating conditions capable of eliciting cortisol responses. Psychological stressors increased cortisol levels; however, effects varied widely across tasks. Consistent with the theoretical model, motivated performance tasks elicited cortisol responses if they were uncontrollable or characterized by social-evaluative threat (task performance could be negatively judged by others), when methodological factors and other stressor characteristics were controlled for. Tasks containing both uncontrollable and social-evaluative elements were associated with the largest cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone changes and the longest times to recovery. These findings are consistent with the animal literature on the physiological effects of uncontrollable social threat and contradict the belief that cortisol is responsive to all types of stressors.

Immunological effects of induced shame and guilt.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if inducing self-blame would lead to increases in shame and guilt as well as increases in proinflammatory cytokine activity and cortisol. Based on previous research and theory, it was hypothesized that induced shame would be specifically associated with elevations in proinflammatory cytokine activity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Healthy participants were randomly assigned to write about traumatic experiences in which they blamed themselves (N = 31) or neutral experiences (N = 18) during three 20-minute experimental laboratory sessions over 1 week. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha receptor levels (sTNFalphaRII), an indicator of proinflammatory cytokine activity, beta2-microglobulin, cortisol (all obtained from oral fluids), and emotion were assessed prewriting and postwriting. RESULTS: Participants in the self-blame condition showed an increase in shame and guilt as well as an increase in sTNFalphaRII activity when compared with those in the control condition. Cortisol and beta2-microglobulin levels were unaffected by the procedures. Those individuals in the self-blame condition reporting the greatest increases in shame in response to the task showed the greatest elevations in proinflammatory cytokine activity, while levels of guilt and general negative emotion were unrelated to cytokine changes. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that inducing self-related emotions can cause changes in inflammatory products, and that shame may have specific immunological correlates.