Molecular evolution of snake toxins: is the functional diversity of snake toxins associated with a mechanism of accelerated evolution?

Recent studies revealed that animal toxins with unrelated biological functions often possess a similar architecture. To tentatively understand the evolutionary mechanisms that may govern this principle of functional prodigality associated with a structural economy, two complementary approaches were considered. One of them consisted of investigating the rates of mutations that occur in cDNAs and/or genes that encode a variety of toxins with the same fold. This approach was largely adopted with phospholipases A2 from Viperidae and to a lesser extent with three-fingered toxins from Elapidae and Hydrophiidae. Another approach consisted of investigating how a given fold can accommodate distinct functional topographies. Thus, a number of topologies by which three-fingered toxins exert distinct functions were investigated either by making chemical modifications and/or mutational analyses or by studying the three-dimensional structure of toxin-target complexes. This review shows that, although the two approaches are different, they commonly indicate that most if not all the surface of a snake toxin fold undergoes natural engineering, which may be associated with an accelerated rate of evolution. The biochemical process by which this phenomenon occurs remains unknown.

Complete amino-acid sequence of the beta-subunit of VTX from venom of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) as identified from cDNA cloning experiments.

A cDNA encoding a subunit of the verrucotoxin (VTX) has been identified from a cDNA library derived from stonefish venom glands. It encodes a polypeptide of 708 amino-acid residues, followed by a 3'-untranslated region of 895 bp long. The ORF contains the complete mature sequence of the beta-subunit of the VTX, as inferred from both the presence of an identical N-terminus sequence and 96% homology among the 506 amino terminus residues found in the partial sequence of the beta-subunit of the stonustoxin from Synanceia horrida (Ghadessy, F.J., Jeyaseelan, K., Chung, M.C.M., Khoo, H.E., and Yuen, R. (1994) Toxicon 32, 1684-1688). Upstream the mature sequence, we noticed the presence of an incomplete peptide of a 13 amino acids, whose unusual primary structure supports the idea of the existence of a propeptide and/or of a new secretion signal.

Stability of a structural scaffold upon activity transfer: X-ray structure of a three fingers chimeric protein.

Fasciculin 2 and toxin alpha proteins belong to the same structural family of three-fingered snake toxins. They act on different targets, but in each case the binding region involves residues from loops I and II. The superimposition of the two structures suggests that these functional regions correspond to structurally distinct zones. Loop I, half of loop II and the C-terminal residue of fasciculin 2 were therefore transferred into the toxin alpha. The inhibition constant of the resulting chimera is only 15-fold lower than that of fasciculin 2, and as expected the potency of binding to the toxin alpha target has been lost. In order to understand the structure-function relationship between the chimera and its "parent" molecules, we solved its structure by X-ray crystallography. The protein crystallized in space group P3(1)21 with a=b=58.5 A, and c=62.3 A. The crystal structure was solved by molecular replacement and refined to 2.1 A resolution. The structure belongs to the three-fingered snake toxin family with a core of four disulphide bridges from which emerge the three loops I, II and III. Superimposition of the chimera on fasciculin 2 or toxin alpha revealed an overall fold intermediate between those of the two parent molecules. The regions corresponding to toxin alpha and to fasciculin 2 retained their respective geometries. In addition, the chimera protein displayed a structural behaviour similar to that of fasciculin 2, i.e. dimerization in the crystal structure of fasciculin 2, and the geometry of the region that binds to acetylcholinesterase. In conclusion, this structure shows that the chimera retains the general structural characteristics of three-fingered toxins, and the structural specificity of the transferred function.

Highly specific anti-estradiol antibodies: structural characterisation and binding diversity.

Subtle modulation of antibody-binding properties by protein engineering often lies with an accurate structural and energetic description of how an antigen is recognised. Thus, with the intent to increase the affinity and add a bias in favour of natural estradiol compared with its chemically modified immunogen, we have determined the crystal structure of two anti-estradiol monoclonal antibodies, 10G6D6 and 17E12E5. Although generated against the same estradiol derivative, these antibodies share little sequence identity, which is reflected in dissimilar binding pockets and in different positioning of the steroid. In both antibodies the characteristic 17-hydroxyl group is buried deeply at the bottom of hydrophobic pockets and stabilised by hydrogen bonds. Apart from this similarity, the steroid is oriented differently in the respective binding pockets. The high specificity of both antibodies has been mapped out, and even closely related steroids show low cross-reactivity. The structural studies of the complex formed between 10G6D6 and 6-CMO-estradiol have identified contacts between the 6-CMO coupling linker and an arginine residue from the heavy chain CDR2 segment. This segment is now being targeted by random mutagenesis to select mutants with a preference for natural estradiol compared to the branched hapten.

A recombinant snake neurotoxin generated by chemical cleavage of a hybrid protein recovers full biological properties.

We previously reported the production of a fused snake neurotoxin composed of protein A and erabutoxin a in E. coli. The hybrid had much lower toxicity and affinity for the acetylcholine nicotinic receptor than natural erabutoxin. By treating the hybrid with cyanogen bromide we generated a toxin which was purified in a single step by RP-HPLC. This compound, produced in a good yield, recovered all properties of native erabutoxin a, implying that the lower toxic activities of the hybrid were due to the bulky protein A and not to an incorrect folding of the toxin. This work serves as a basis for future studies of toxin-receptor interactions using engineered toxin mutants.

On the site by which alpha-dendrotoxin binds to voltage-dependent potassium channels: site-directed mutagenesis reveals that the lysine triplet 28-30 is not essential for binding.

We constructed a synthetic gene encoding the published amino acid sequence of DTx from Dendroaspis angusticeps, a ligand of voltage-dependent postassium channels that facilitates neurotransmitter release. We expressed it in Escherichia coli as a fusion protein secreted in the culture medium. The recombinant DTx was generated in vitro by chemical treatment and recovered as two isoforms. One of them (rDTx), like the venom toxin, has an N-terminal pyroglutamate whereas the other (rQDTx) has a free N-terminal glutamine. Chromatographic differences between rDTx and natural DTx led us to re-examine the amino acid sequence of natural DTx. In contrast to what was previously published, position 12 was an Asp and not Asn. Despite this difference, rDTx and DTx had similar toxicity in mice and binding affinity to synaptosomes, suggesting that residue 12 is not important for DTx function. Nor is the N-terminal residue implicated in DTx function since rDTx and rQDTx also had similar biological activities. We also synthesized and expressed a mutant of the DTx gene in which the lysine triplet 28-30 was changed into Ala-Ala-Gly. The two resulting recombinant isoforms exhibited only small decreases in biological activity, excluding the possibility that the positively charged lysine triplet 28-30 of DTx is directly involved in the toxin functional site.

Recombinant technology in the preparation of immunogen and enzymatic tracer. Application to the development of an enzyme immunoassay for rat prolactin.

A competitive enzyme immunoassay for rat prolactin using an immunogen and a tracer obtained by recombinant DNA technology is described. Polyclonal antibodies were raised in rabbits immunized with a purified chimeric protein consisting of rat prolactin fused with two synthetic immunoglobulin G binding domains derived from staphylococcal Protein A. The enzymatic tracer was obtained using an expression system which permits insertion of rPRL DNA sequence in the alkaline phosphatase gene. Antibodies and tracer were used to develop a solid-phase competitive immunoassay for the measurement of rat prolactin in plasma with a minimal detectable concentration of 0.5 ng/ml. The mean intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation were 7.8 and 13.2%, respectively. Rat plasma concentrations measured with this assay correlated well with those obtained with a conventional enzyme immunoassay (r = 0.993, slope = 1.037, n = 24).

Analysis of the individual contributions of immunoglobulin heavy and light chains to the binding of antigen using cell transfection and plasmon resonance analysis.

We have cloned the Tg10 murine monoclonal antibody, which is specific for a human thyroglobulin (hTg) epitope targeted by autoantibodies in several thyroid pathologies. Transfection of COS-7 cells with plasmids expressing Tg10H and -kappa chains combined with surface plasmon resonance analysis (BIAcore) of culture supernatants showed that the entire cloned Tg10 antibody displays an affinity comparable to that of the parental antibody. This approach also permitted determination of the probable role of each chain to the recognition of the cognate epitope due to the ability of COS-7 cells to secrete independently each of the two constituting immunoglobulin chains. Tg10 heavy chain recognizes hTg in the absence of the light chain, but with a ten-fold lower affinity mainly due to an increase in kappaoff. In contrast, the light chain is unable to bind hTg on its own. This suggests that the latter is probably involved in stabilization rather than in initiating the formation of the antibody/antigen complex and that the specificity of Tg10 is mostly, if not exclusively, carried by the heavy chain. The potential applications of combined cell transfection and surface plasmon resonance to our understanding of antigen/antibody interactions are discussed.

Recombinant antibody-alkaline phosphatase conjugates for diagnosis of human IgGs: application to anti-HBsAg detection.

We have designed an expression vector permitting the production in the periplasm of Escherichia coli of a fusion protein comprising a dimer of bacterial alkaline phosphatase (PhoA) and two Fab or scFv fragments of a monoclonal antibody directed against human IgG. Each hybrid protein expressed both high specificity for the antigen and full PhoA activity. We show that crude periplasmic extracts containing these conjugates can be used as such in enzyme immunoassays for the detection of human IgG, as exemplified in the case of anti-hepatitis B immunoglobulin.

Nucleotide sequence and structure analysis of cDNAs encoding short-chain neurotoxins from venom glands of a sea snake (Aipysurus laevis).

Two cDNAs from the sea snake Aipysurus laevis have been cloned and sequenced. They encode isoforms of short chain neurotoxins. One of them is toxin b, previously isolated from the venom of Aipysurus laevis and sequenced by Maeda and Tamiya (Biochem. J. 153, 79, 1976), whereas the other corresponds to an isoform which was not hitherto described. The two toxin sequences differ from each other by three amino-acid residues. Both cDNA structures were comparable with that previously determined in our laboratory for erabutoxin a from Laticauda semifasciata.

Amino acid sequence of a muscarinic toxin deduced from the cDNA nucleotide sequence.

We prepared a cDNA library from venom glands of the green mamba Dendroaspis angusticeps. A cDNA clone was isolated using an appropriate nucleotide probe. The nucleotide sequence codes for a 21 residue signal peptide followed by a 65 residue protein having the amino acid sequence of muscarinic toxin 2, as confirmed in the accompanying paper (Karlsson, E., Risinger, C., Jolkkonen, M., Wernstedt, C. and Adem, A.). The cDNA encoding the muscarinic toxin has been compared with those encoding other snake toxins. There are close similarities with short-chain curaremimetic neurotoxins.

Expression and processing of recombinant sarafotoxins precursor in Pichia pastoris.

Sarafotoxins are peptides isolated from the Atractaspis snake venom, with strong constrictor effect on cardiac and smooth muscle. They are structurally and functionally related to endothelins. The sarafotoxins precursor cDNA predicts an unusual structure 'rosary-type', with 12 successive similar stretches of sarafotoxin (SRTX) and spacer. In the present work, the recombinant precursor of SRTXs was sub-cloned and expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris, and secreted to the culture medium. Characterization by SDS-PAGE, immunoblot, mass spectrometry and biological activity, suggests that intact precursor was expressed but processing into mature toxins also occurred. Furthermore, our results indicate that the correct proportion of sarafotoxin types as contained in the precursor, is obtained in the yeast culture medium. Contractile effects of the expressed toxins, on rat and Bothrops jararaca isolated aorta, were equivalent to 5x10(-10)M and 5x10(-11)M of sarafotoxin b, respectively. The enzymes responsible for the complete maturation of sarafotoxins precursor are still unknown. Our results strongly suggest that the yeast Pichia pastoris is able to perform such a maturation process. Thus, the yeast Pichia pastoris may offer an alternative to snake venom gland to tentatively identify the molecular process responsible for SRTXs release.

Regional and accelerated molecular evolution in group I snake venom gland phospholipase A2 isozymes.

In accordance with detection of a few phospholipase A2 (PLA2) isozyme genes by Southern blot analysis, only two cDNAs, named NnkPLA-I , and NnkPLA-II, encoding group I PLA2s, NnkPLA-I and NnkPLA-II, respectively, were isolated from the venom gland cDNA library of Elapinae Naja naja kaouthia of Malaysia. NnkPLA-I and NnkPLA-II showed four amino acid substitutions, all of which were brought about by single nucleotide substitution. No existence of clones encoding CM-II and CM-III, PLA2 isozymes which had been isolated from the venom of N. naja kaouthia of Thailand, in Malaysian N. naja kaouthia venom gland cDNA library was verified by dot blot hybridization analysis with particular probes. NnkPLA-I and NnkPLA-II differed from CM-II and CM-III with four and two amino acid substitutions, respectively, suggesting that their molecular evolution is regional. The comparison of NnkPLA-I, NnkPLA-II and cDNAs encoding other group I snake venom gland PLA2s indicated that the 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions are more conserved than the mature protein-coding region and that the number of nucleotide substitutions per nonsynonymous site is almost equal to that per synonymous site in the protein-coding region, suggesting that accelerated evolution has occurred in group I venom gland PLA2s possibly to acquire new physiological functions.

Recombinant colorimetric antibodies: construction and characterization of a bifunctional F(ab)2/alkaline phosphatase conjugate produced in Escherichia coli.

We have designed a vector which allows the synthesis in Escherichia coli of bifunctional F(ab)2-alkaline phosphatase conjugates. The vector contains a di-cistronic operon encoding truncated heavy chain (Fd or VH-CH1) of an IgG inserted between residues +6 and +7 of bacterial alkaline phosphatase (PhoA), and the light chain of the same IgG. We demonstrate the utility of this approach with the heavy and light chain domains of a snake toxin-specific monoclonal antibody, M alpha 2-3. We show that the VH-CH1-PhoA hybrid and VL-CL are concomitantly expressed and exported to the periplasm of E. coli where they form a disulfide-linked chimeric protein. The hybrid has the same affinity as M alpha 2-3 for the snake toxin antigen and possesses PhoA enzymatic activity.

Endothelin-like peptides.

Mammalian endothelins (ETs) and snake venom sarafotoxins (SRTXs) comprise structurally and functionally related potent vasoconstrictor isopeptides that act on the vascular system via identical receptors. This similarity is remarkable, since SRTXs are highly toxic components isolated from the venoms of snakes of the genus Atractaspis of the Atractaspididae family, while ETs are endogenous hormones of the mammalian vascular system. Since the first functional and structural description of SRTXs in 1988, the full extent of their natural diversity has become increasingly apparent, and this has led to the characterization of new families of endothelin-like peptides. Based on a combination of conventional biochemical approaches and the latest molecular biology and mass spectrometry techniques, this review describes the more recent panel of SRTX isopeptides isolated from various snake species within the Atractaspididae family, but also the similarities and differences that exist between sarafotoxins and endothelins in terms of their metabolism, genetic origin, structure and functional sites.

[Recombinant colorimetric antibodies: genetic construction and production in E. coli]. / Anticorps colorimétriques recombinants: construction génétique et production chez E. coli.

We constructed an expression vector comprising a transcription unit composed of (1) the gene of alkaline phosphatase from E. coli in which we inserted a DNA fragment encoding the VH and CH domains of an IgG2A; (2) a DNA fragment encoding the light chain of the same immunoglobulin. Bacteria, E. coli were transformed with the plasmid, and hence it produced a periplasmic and chimaeric protein having both the alkaline phosphatase enzymatic activity and the immunoglobulin binding function. The hybrid protein mimics a bivalent antibody whose Fc part is replaced by a dimer of alkaline phosphatase. Recombinant colorimetric antibodies offer interesting potentialities for future developments in the field of immuno-enzymatic diagnosis.

Direct expression in E. coli of a functionally active protein A--snake toxin fusion protein.

We constructed a recombinant expression plasmid encoding a protein A--neurotoxin fusion protein. The fused toxin is directly expressed in the periplasmic space of Escherichia coli and can be purified in the milligram range by a single immuno-affinity step. The LD50 values of the fused toxin and native toxin are 130 and 20 nmol/kg mouse respectively. The Kd values characterizing their binding to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AcChoR) are respectively 4.8 +/- 0.8 and 0.07 +/- 0.03 nM. In contrast, the fused and native toxins are equally well recognized by a toxin-specific monoclonal antibody which recognizes the AcChoR binding site. The lower toxicity of the fused toxin might result, therefore, from a steric hindrance, due to the presence of the bulky protein A moiety (mol. wt = 31 kd) rather than to a direct alteration of the 'toxic' site. The fused toxin is more immunogenic than native toxin, since 1 nmol of hybrid toxin and 14 nmol of native toxin give rise to comparable titers of antitoxin antibodies which, furthermore, are equally potent at neutralizing neurotoxicity. The work described in this paper shows that the use of fused toxins may be of paramount importance for future development of serotherapy against envenomation by snake bites.

Structural model of the anti-snake-toxin antibody, M alpha 2,3.

We present results of structural modeling of the variable fragment of M alpha 2,3, an antibody capable of neutralizing all short snake toxins. Three different methods were used to model the hypervariable loops: the conformational search algorithm CONGEN (Bruccoleri and Karplus, Biopolymers 26:137-168, 1987), high-temperature molecular dynamics (Bruccoleri and Karplus, Biopolymers 29:1847-1862, 1990), and a combined knowledge-based and energy-based algorithm (Martin et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:9268-9272, 1989). Ninety plausible conformations were generated and were clustered into 13 classes. The clustering results indicate that there was little overlap of the conformational space explored by the different methods. Canonical loop structures were found by all methods for two of the loops, in agreement with previously established empirical modeling criteria. Nine of the 13 classes of structure were rejected on the ground of their lacking common features of antibody combining-site structure. The remaining four models were refined using restrained molecular dynamics. It was found that interconversion between the four resulting structures is possible with no significant energy barriers, suggesting that they are in thermodynamic equilibrium at 300 K. Features of the combining-site structure likely to be particularly important for antigen binding are discussed.

Precursors of vertebrate peptide antibiotics dermaseptin b and adenoregulin have extensive sequence identities with precursors of opioid peptides dermorphin, dermenkephalin, and deltorphins.

The dermaseptins are a family of broad spectrum antimicrobial peptides, 27-34 amino acids long, involved in the defense of the naked skin of frogs against microbial invasion. They are the first vertebrate peptides to show lethal effects against the filamentous fungi responsible for severe opportunistic infections accompanying immunodeficiency syndrome and the use of immunosuppressive agents. A cDNA library was constructed from skin poly(A+) RNA of the arboreal frog Phyllomedusa bicolor and screened with an oligonucleotide probe complementary to the COOH terminus of dermaseptin b. Several clones contained a full-length DNA copy of a 443-nucleotide mRNA that encoded a 78-residue dermaseptin b precursor protein. The deduced precursor contained a putative signal sequence at the NH2 terminus, a 20-residue spacer sequence extremely rich (60%) in glutamic and aspartic acids, and a single copy of a dermaseptin b progenitor sequence at the COOH terminus. One clone contained a complete copy of adenoregulin, a 33-residue peptide reported to enhance the binding of agonists to the A1 adenosine receptor. The mRNAs encoding adenoregulin and dermaseptin b were very similar: 70 and 75% nucleotide identities between the 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions, respectively; 91% amino acid identity between the signal peptides; 82% identity between the acidic spacer sequences; and 38% identity between adenoregulin and dermaseptin b. Because adenoregulin and dermaseptin b have similar precursor designs and antimicrobial spectra, adenoregulin should be considered as a new member of the dermaseptin family and alternatively named dermaseptin b II. Preprodermaseptin b and preproadenoregulin have considerable sequence identities to the precursors encoding the opioid heptapeptides dermorphin, dermenkephalin, and deltorphins. This similarity extended into the 5'-untranslated regions of the mRNAs. These findings suggest that the genes encoding the four preproproteins are all members of the same family despite the fact that they encode end products having very different biological activities. These genes might contain a homologous export exon comprising the 5'-untranslated region, the 22-residue signal peptide, the 20-24-residue acidic spacer, and the basic pair Lys-Arg.

Role and environment of the conserved Lys27 of snake curaremimetic toxins as probed by chemical modifications, site-directed mutagenesis and photolabelling experiments.

The positive charge of Lys27 was suppressed by chemical means in two short-chain curaremimetic toxins, namely erabutoxin a (Ea) from Laticauda semifasciata and toxin alpha from Naja nigricollis. This modification leads to a decrease in the binding affinity of the toxins for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which range 6-15-fold, as judged from both the data reported here and those previously described in the literature. A negatively charged glutamate residue has been introduced at position 27 of erabutoxin a by site-directed mutagenesis. This change provokes a 120-fold decrease in the affinity, which reflects a major alteration of toxin-receptor cognate events. Using toxin-alpha derivative harbouring a photoactive group at Lys27, we probed the toxin local environment in a receptor-bound state by photocoupling experiments. The delta chain was the predominant coupling target, in contrast to previous observations indicating that a photoactive probe on Lys47 predominantly labelled the alpha chain. The toxin derivative weakly labelled the alpha and gamma chains but not the beta chain. The toxin may therefore interact with subunits other than the alpha chain, at least in the vicinity of Lys27.